Updating terrorism The changing uses of the internet by terrorists in the West Matthijs Kock | 5996198 Master thesis in International Relations in Historical Perspective Supervised by Prof. dr. Beatrice de Graaf & dr. Frank Gerits Utrecht University | 15 August 2020 “The fact that we’re all connected, the fact that we’ve got this information space, does change the parameters. It changes the way people live and work. It changes things for good and for bad.”1 - Tim Berners-Lee, inventor of the World Wide Web 1 Scott Laningham, ‘Tim Berners-Lee. Originator of the Web and director of the World Wide Web Consortium talks about where we’ve come, and about the challenges and opportunities ahead’, IBM Developed, August 22, 2006, https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/podcast/dwi/cm-int082206txt.html (accessed May 14, 2020). Abstract This thesis analyses how the technological development of the internet has changed the use of the internet by terrorists in the West between 2003 and 2009. The role of the internet for terrorism is often, but incorrectly, perceived as a static one without progress. This thesis however emphasises the historical development of the internet by analysing how the internet was used by terrorists in three technological phases of the web. Each Web phase is studied using a detailed qualitative approach in which the online activities of individual members of a terrorist network are examined. The networks selected for this analysis are the Dutch Hofstad Network, the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and the fluid network of far-right terrorists. The careful choice for each of these networks is based on their active use of the respective technological phase of the internet. The analysis shows that on the one hand, shifts in the type of content and used platforms can be distinguished over the years. Additionally, an increase in the sophistication of online activities of terrorists and the importance of online communities can be seen. On the other hand, the online activities were merely an expansion to the offline activities of terrorists, as they could not replace the physical violence that is essential to terrorism. This online expansion did however further increase the (potential) audience of terrorists and decrease the importance of ideology. Keywords Online terrorism, History of Internet, Hofstad Network, ISIS, Far-Right terrorism, counterterrorism Acknowledgements I would like to express my great appreciation to my supervisors, Prof. dr. Beatrice de Graaf and dr. Frank Gerits. The advice, insights, and support from a renowned researcher in the field of terrorism studies like Beatrice de Graaf, has greatly enhanced the quality of my thesis. Dr. Frank Gerits helped me to improve the overall structure of this research and kept me focussed on answering the main research question. I would also like to thank Esther Heldenbergh-Bode, personal assistant to Beatrice de Graaf, for managing my progress, and organising my meetings with Beatrice, which was not an easy feat due to the current coronavirus pandemic. Additionally, I want to thank my fellow students of the thesis seminar, Jordy van Beek, Dawid Fusiek, Alex Hampton, Connie Meza and Jannes Pittermann. We all shared the struggles of writing a master thesis and they kept me motivated while also providing me with new insights and perspectives. And finally, I am grateful for the advice, support and encouragements of my parents and friends throughout the process of writing this master thesis. Table of contents List of abbreviations ............................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction to the topic ............................................................................................................... 2 1.2 Research question ......................................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Theoretical justification ................................................................................................................. 6 1.4 Methodological framework ......................................................................................................... 10 The Hofstad Network’s exploration of the internet ............................................................................ 14 2.1 The internet at the start of the century ...................................................................................... 14 2.2 The Hofstad Network .................................................................................................................. 14 2.3 The internet of the Hofstad Network .......................................................................................... 16 2.3.1 Propaganda........................................................................................................................... 16 2.3.2 Finance ................................................................................................................................. 18 2.3.3 Training ................................................................................................................................. 19 2.3.4 Planning ................................................................................................................................ 20 2.3.5 Execution .............................................................................................................................. 23 2.3.6 Cyberattacks ......................................................................................................................... 24 2.4 Looking in the wrong direction ................................................................................................... 24 2.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 25 The online ubiquity of ISIS .................................................................................................................... 27 3.1 The user-based internet .............................................................................................................. 27 3.2 Creating an Islamic caliphate ....................................................................................................... 28 3.3 ISIS electronic jihad ..................................................................................................................... 30 3.3.1 Propaganda........................................................................................................................... 30 3.3.2 Finance ................................................................................................................................. 33 3.2.3 Training ................................................................................................................................. 35 3.3.4 Planning ................................................................................................................................ 36 3.3.5 Execution .............................................................................................................................. 37 3.3.6 Cyberattacks ......................................................................................................................... 39 3.4 Notice and take down ................................................................................................................. 41 3.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 42 Lone actor terrorism and the Web 3.0 ................................................................................................. 44 4.1 The ever-expanding internet ....................................................................................................... 44 4.2 Right-wing terrorism ................................................................................................................... 45 4.3 An online community .................................................................................................................. 47 4.3.1 Propaganda........................................................................................................................... 47 4.3.2 Finance ................................................................................................................................. 50 4.3.3 Training ................................................................................................................................. 51 4.3.4 Planning ................................................................................................................................ 52 4.3.5 Execution .............................................................................................................................. 54 4.3.6 Cyberattacks ......................................................................................................................... 57 4.4 Automated counterterrorism ...................................................................................................... 58 4.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 60 Transitions and trends in the online activities of terrorists. ............................................................... 61 Transitions ........................................................................................................................................