“EYE APPEAL IS BUY APPEAL”: BUSINESS CREATES THE COLOR OF FOODS, 1870-1970 by Ai Hisano A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the University of Delaware in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Spring 2016 © 2016 Ai Hisano All Rights Reserved ProQuest Number: 10157857 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ProQuest 10157857 Published by ProQuest LLC (2016). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346 “EYE APPEAL IS BUY APPEAL”: BUSINESS CREATES THE COLOR OF FOODS, 1870-1970 by Ai Hisano Approved: __________________________________________________________ Arwen P. Mohun, Ph.D. Chair of the Department of History Approved: __________________________________________________________ George H. Watson, Ph.D. Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences Approved: __________________________________________________________ Ann L. Ardis, Ph.D. Senior Vice Provost for Graduate and Professional Education I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it meets the academic and professional standard required by the University as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Signed: __________________________________________________________ Susan Strasser, Ph.D. Professor in charge of dissertation I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it meets the academic and professional standard required by the University as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Signed: __________________________________________________________ Roger Horowitz, Ph.D. Member of dissertation committee I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it meets the academic and professional standard required by the University as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Signed: __________________________________________________________ David Suisman, Ph.D. Member of dissertation committee I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it meets the academic and professional standard required by the University as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Signed: __________________________________________________________ Warren Belasco, Ph.D. Member of dissertation committee ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I owe my gratitude to all those people who have made this dissertation possible. My deepest gratitude is to my advisor, Dr. Susan Strasser. Her encouragement and commitment to her students taught me how to be a great scholar and mentor. Her critical comments on my numerous drafts and challenging questions not only made my writing clearer but also guided me to explore new directions and think harder. Her patience and support helped me overcome many difficult situations and finish this dissertation. Our monthly meeting at the Library of Congress cafeteria, during the 2014-2015 academic year, will always remain a cherished memory with me. I am also thankful to Dr. David Suisman for sincere encouragement and support throughout my graduate studies. Conversations with Dr. Roger Horowitz at different stages of my research were always thought-provoking and helped me organize thoughts and express ideas. Dr. Warren Belasco’s insightful comments on my work, as well as his numerous books on food history, provided me with new ways of thinking about foods. I feel very privileged to have these distinguished scholars and mentors on my dissertation committee. Their generous support and encouragement helped me complete the dissertation. I am also deeply grateful to faculty members and graduate students in the Department of History at the University of Delaware, including Dr. Anne Boylan, Dr. Arwen Mohun, Dr. Adam Rome, Liz Jones, Jennifer Jensen, Alison Kreizer, and Satomi Minowa. Jennifer Fang deserves more thanks than I can ever give. She read, among other drafts and papers, very first, rough drafts of every single dissertation iv chapter. Her thoughtful comments, encouragement, and friendship made my graduate experience a wonderful memory that I will cherish forever. My journey to graduate school started when I was at the University of Tokyo in Japan. I owe great many thanks to my long-time mentor Dr. Yujin Yaguchi. He introduced me to the depth and breadth of historical studies and led me to pursue academic career. Without him, I would never have imagined to be a historian. My fellow graduate students at the University of Tokyo also helped me develop my project, asking me many interesting questions and giving me suggestions. I am indebted to generous support from various institutions for conducting research and writing my dissertation. The two-year Fulbright Graduate Study Grant enabled me to proceed to graduate study in the United States. I am also grateful for the four years of support from the University of Delaware. The Henry Belin du Pont Research Grant from the Hagley Museum and Library and the John Furr Fellowship for JWT Research from the John W. Hartman Center at Duke University supported my research on advertisements and corporate records. Two fellowships from the Smithsonian Institute allowed me to gather substantial resources at the National Museum of American History, the Library of Congress, and the National Archives. I owe a great debt to the librarians and archivists who provided me with access to numerous documents. Their knowledge about collections and insights into different fields of study also enriched my project and helped me to ask new questions. I am grateful for enormous assistance from Paula Johnson, Eric Hintz, Alison Oswald, Joe Hursey, Deborah Warner, and Jim Roan at the National Museum of American History. I thank Paul Doucette at the Southborough Historical Society; Jim Cusick and Carl Van Ness at the University of Florida; LuAnn Mims at the Florida Southern College; v John Skarstad at the University of California-Davis; Elizabeth Brake and Lynn Eaton at Duke University; and the staff at the Schlesinger Library at Harvard and at the University of Delaware library. This dissertation would not have been possible without support from my family. My parents have always provided me with sincere and bottomless encouragement and support. This dissertation is dedicated to my partner Yuki Oda. His patience, encouragement, and confidence in me always assured me that I would finish the dissertation and what I was doing was meaningful. He makes everything better and my life colorful. v i TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... ix ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... xi Chapter INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1 Significance and Literature Review .................................................................... 8 Chapter Outline ................................................................................................. 24 Sources .............................................................................................................. 28 1 CREATING “SAFE” COLORS ....................................................................... 30 From Natural to Synthetic Dyes ....................................................................... 34 The Creation of the Certified Dye Business ..................................................... 47 The Expansion of the Food Dye Market ........................................................... 57 Dyes and Eyes: Color Whets the Appetite ........................................................ 66 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 76 2 THE COLOR OF NEW TASTES: HOW FOOD SHOULD LOOK ............... 78 Creating Color Expectations ............................................................................. 81 The Influence of Color Expectations .............................................................. 100 Visualization of Color Expectations ............................................................... 115 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 138 3 CREATING “NATURAL” COLORS ............................................................ 140 The Elimination of Natural Variation ............................................................. 145 Making Butter “Look Like Butter” ........................................................... 145 Creating “Natural” Meat Color ............................................................... 154 The Enhancement of “Natural” Processes ...................................................... 159 The Measurement of “Natural” Colors ........................................................... 172 The Threshold of “Naturalness” ..................................................................... 178 Conclusion .....................................................................................................