University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository Graduate Studies The Vault: Electronic Theses and Dissertations 2019-07-15 'All Four Seasons and I Will Die': A Typology of Displacement Atrocities Basso, Andrew Robert Basso, A. R. (2019). All Four Seasons and I Will Die': A Typology of Displacement Atrocities (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. http://hdl.handle.net/1880/110666 doctoral thesis University of Calgary graduate students retain copyright ownership and moral rights for their thesis. You may use this material in any way that is permitted by the Copyright Act or through licensing that has been assigned to the document. For uses that are not allowable under copyright legislation or licensing, you are required to seek permission. Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY ‘All Four Seasons and I Will Die': A Typology of Displacement Atrocities by Andrew Robert Basso A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILISOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN POLITICAL SCIENCE CALGARY, ALBERTA JULY, 2019 © Andrew Robert Basso 2019 Abstract In this dissertation I answer the question: why is displacement used to commit genocide? To answer this question, a typology and theory of Displacement Atrocity (DA) crimes is offered. Perpetrators of DA crimes uniquely fuse forced displacement with systemic deprivations of vital daily needs in order to destroy populations in whole or in part. DA crimes are typically perpetrated in large political geographies which are transformed into spaces of annihilation. There are two subtypes of DA crimes. First, perpetrators of kettling DA crimes use area squared to displace populations into and confine them in these large areas to annihilate them. Second, perpetrators of escorting DA crimes use linear distance to forcibly march their targeted populations along and annihilate them. This potent indirect killing method has yet to be fully understood in relevant literatures. The inductive typology I present is based on comparative historical analysis of Germany’s Genocide of the Herero (Herero Genocide) in German South-West Africa (1904-1908) and the Ottoman Genocide of Christian Minorities (1914-1925) in the Ottoman Empire/Turkey. The DA crime theory is then tested against two counter-cases which occurred in the same political geographies: Germany’s Genocide of the Nama (Nama Genocide) (1905-1908) and the Hamidian Massacres (1894-1896). The potential future uses of the DA crime concept in the 21st Century are offered in the conclusions section. Keywords Displacement Atrocity; Displacement; Forced Displacement; Atrocity; Genocide; Political Violence; Political Geography; Kettling Displacement Atrocity; Escorting Displacement Atrocity; Herero Genocide; Ottoman Genocide of Christian Minorities; Hereros; Armenians; Greeks; Assyrians; Nama Genocide; Hamidian Massacres; Namibia; Germany; Ottoman Empire; Turkey ~ ii ~ page intentionally left blank ~ iii ~ Separation If within my poems You take out the flower From the four seasons One of my seasons will die If you exclude love Two of my seasons will die If you exclude bread Three of my seasons will die And if you take away freedom All four seasons and I will die. ~ Sherko Bekas ~1 1 Sherko Bekas, “Poems,” Index on Censorship 17, no.6 (1 June 1988): 17, translated from the Kurdish by Hussain Sinjari, available from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03064228808534471. ~ iv ~ Preface Charles Bukowski once quipped that “there is a loneliness in the world so great that you can see it in the slow movement of the hands of a clock.”2 DA crimes inflict a type of loneliness on targeted populations through displacement. Displacement from home. From community. From identity. The origins of my interests in DA crimes stems back to my participation as a student in the 2012 class of the Genocide and Human Rights University Program (GHRUP) run by the Zoryan Institute in Toronto, Canada. There, I linked three cases together to form what I initially called “Deportation Genocide.” The three cases were the Cherokee Trail of Tears (1838-1839), the Herero Genocide (1904-1908), and the expulsion of the Chechens (1944-1950). I was initially concerned with what seemed to be genocidal intent in all three as well as the fact that no one to my knowledge at that time had exclusively studied displacement as a primary weapon of genocide perpetration. Later, Deportation Genocide constituted the topic of my Master’s major research paper (MRP) under the supervision of Dr. Rhoda E. Howard-Hassmann at Wilfrid Laurier University in 2013. I utilized three cases, the Cherokees, Hereros, and the genocide of Pontic Greeks in the Ottoman Empire, to continue developing the Deportation Genocide concept. A later conference presentation of mine, “Towards a Displacement Atrocities Theory: The Cherokee, Herero, and the Pontic Greeks,” at the Eleventh Conference of the International Association of Genocide Scholars at the University of Manitoba in 2014 was the first time I publicly presented what developed into the DA crime concept. It became clear that limiting 2 Charles Bukowski, Love is a Dog from Hell (New York: Ecco, 2003), 162-164. ~ v ~ understandings of displacement to the crime of genocide would only unnecessarily confine the theory of DA crimes at present and in the future, which is why I favour the term ‘atrocity’. My initial investigations of the different kinds of international crimes delineated in the Rome Statute of the ICC – those being genocide, crimes against humanity (CAH), and war crimes (WC) – led to an expansion of the DA theory to include not just genocide, but all three major ‘atrocity crimes’. Additionally, the feedback from two scholars in particular, Dr. Maureen S. Hiebert and Dr. Adam Jones, at the conference helped me understand how to expand the DA crime theory using a broader lens. I was invited to submit a paper to Genocide Studies and Prevention based directly on the 2014 conference presentation. This manifested in a peer-reviewed paper published in Genocide Studies and Prevention in 2016 titled “Towards a Theory of Displacement Atrocities: The Cherokee Trail of Tears, The Herero Genocide, and The Pontic Greek Genocide.” This paper forms the launching point for my dissertation as it formally introduced the idea that DA crimes could be genocidal or non-genocidal, occur in war or in peace, and can be used in myriad geographical locations. My paper began to expand understanding indirect killing processes as not simply displacement and concentration, but displacement and denial of vital daily needs during displacement to perpetrate other forms of atrocities. My dissertation continues my work on displacement and atrocities developed over the past six years. It is important to note that without the insights of Dr. Hiebert this dissertation would not have been possible. The main purpose of my research is to offer a formal typology of DA crimes using spatially and temporally different cases and different uses of ‘space’ by perpetrators. In order to construct this typology and theory, I relied on positivist, comparative historical analyses in order to reach inductive conclusions on the relationships among displacement, atrocity, geography, ~ vi ~ perpetrator intent, and causal pathways to atrocity. Two variables, land and intent, form the backbone of the DA typology. This thesis is original, unpublished, and independent work by the author, Andrew R. Basso. ~ vii ~ Acknowledgements “Genocide? Why do you study that?” I am always aksed that question with a hesitant and concerned look on the questioner’s face. Truthfully, I still don’t have a perfect answer. The first part is straightforward, to a degree: to prevent genocide and punish perpetrators. Even if they never see a courtroom, there is still some justice in ensuring the names of perpetrators are forever tied with their deeds. Simply put we can’t let them get away with it. Related to this is a duty to remember the victims. Perpetrators create lies about their targets and in order to undo these lies victims and their stories must never be lost to the sands of time. They are the only remedies to the lies. When one decides to study political violence you necessarily dedicate your soul to human rights. You try to build at least somewhat of a better world than you inherited. Because of this, dear reader, you can imagine that there were more than a handful of times that I hit intellectual brick walls, was emotionally worn down, and was overwhelmed by the violent worlds I research. If writing this dissertation has taught me anything it’s that you need a great band. The following individuals and institutions made this composition possible. I want to thank my supervisor, Maureen S. Hiebert for her incredible support throughout our time together. It really does seem like only a few months ago (if nearly 74 months qualifies for ‘a few’) when I first came to Calgary and you toured me around the city. From Day One you have always supported my work, refocussed me when I needed it, kept me engaged, understood how I work as a writer, and have been a truly wonderful supervisor through it all. Without your ~ viii ~ encouragement, keen insights, critiques, and readings of draft-upon-draft this dissertation could not have been written. I’ll miss our impromptu political discussions at the office. Other faculty members at the University of Calgary have had significant impacts on me, offered me professional advancement advice and opporrtunities, and have made the University of Calgary feel like ‘home’ for the past six years. I want to recognize Terry Terriff, Robert Hubert, Brenda O’Neill, Mark Baron, Antonio Franceschet, Susan Franceschet, Joshua Goldstein, Anthony Sayers, James Keeley, Barry Cooper, and Daniel Voth for everything you’ve done for me. A special thanks to Ella Wensel, Judi Powell, Bonnie Walter, Jessica Daigle, and Denise Retzlaff for keeping the place running.