THE MAKING OF ‘LOYALS’ AND ‘REBELS’: The 1880 Transkei Rebellion and the Subversion of the Chieftaincies of East Griqualand, 1874-1914 A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY of RHODES UNIVERSITY By Milner Charles Snell 2016 i Abstract In the mid-1870s, influenced by the mineral revolution in southern Africa, the Cape responsible government began to extend colonial rule over the chiefdoms that inhabited the Mthatha- Mzimkhulu region. Although white officials initially negotiated with the leadership of these chiefdoms to accept colonial rule and depended heavily on them to implement new laws, ultimately the Cape government aimed to side-line indigenous political systems and replace them with magistrates and headmen. Colonial officials mistakenly equated indigenous political structures with dictatorial chiefs whose followers were subject to their personal ambitions. In fact chiefs were part of a collective leadership and were very aware and influenced by the needs of their adherents. This work is concerned with how the chieftaincies, or indigenous political systems, of the Mthatha-Mzimkhulu region responded, survived and adapted in the face of colonialism. The chieftaincies were remarkably resilient despite the political and economic changes brought on by colonialism and capitalism and were able to retain some degree of authority amongst their followers and at times obtain recognition from the colonial state. Interactions between the chieftaincies and the colonial state were complex, fluid and ever evolving. Some leaders of chiefdoms co-operated with colonial authorities, either over particular issues at certain times or more generally over longer periods, and were considered by colonial officials to be ‘loyal’. Yet, at other times they resisted the demands and changes being brought on by colonialism and were labelled as ‘rebels’. Questions of how the chieftaincies responded to colonial rule were most critical during the Transkei Rebellion of 1880, which is a central focus of this work. Some chieftaincies co-operated with and served with the colonial military forces in order to spare themselves from the economic and social disruption brought on by war and the confiscation of land by the victors. Other chieftaincies took up arms against the colonial state in ii an attempt to stop the increasingly unacceptable demands being made of them and to resist the negative changes that colonialism was bringing. Despite their ability to adapt, by the early years of the twentieth century hereditary leaders found themselves increasingly caught between the expectations of their followers and demands made by the colonial administration. Faced with increasing popular criticism, many leaders adapted ambiguous and shifting stances on issues concerning their followers. Table of Contents Abstract ii Dedication vi Abbreviations, Glossary and Comments on Terminology vii Acknowledgements x Introduction 1 Chapter One: The Origins of the Chiefdoms of the Mthatha-Mzimkhulu Region 27 Chapter Two: ‘The Mild Benign Sway of the British Rule’: The Extension of Cape Rule between the Mthatha and Mzimkhulu Rivers 55 Chapter Three: ‘Government Deals with its Subjects in its Own Way’: The Realities of Colonial Rule 84 Chapter Four: ‘Easily Managed People’: The Basotho Chiefdoms Rebel 114 Chapter Five: ‘Hearts White towards Government’: Loyal Chiefdoms and the Offensive against the Basotho 143 Chapter Six: ‘The Hand of the White Queen was Killed’: The Uprising Spreads to the Mpondomise Chiefdoms 165 Chapter Seven: The Rebellion 189 Chapter Eight: Punishment and Compromise: Indigenous Leaders and the Headmanship System 212 iv Chapter Nine: Strained and Shifting Loyalties: Loyal Chiefdoms and the Crises of Colonialism 241 Conclusion 268 List of Sources 275 v IN MEMORY OF ATHI DUBE vi Abbreviations, Glossary and Comments on Terminology Abbreviations BNA - Blue-Book for Native Affairs BPP - British Parliamentary Papers CMR - Cape Mounted Rifles CPP - Cape Parliamentary Papers EGMR - East Griqualand Mounted Rifles CA - Cape Town Archives FAMP - Frontier Armed and Mounted Police PAR - Pietermaritzburg Archives Glossary Zulu (Z), Xhosa (X) and Sotho (S), and dialects thereof, are among the languages spoken by the people of the Mthatha-Mzimkhulu region. The following words drawn from these languages have been used in this work:1 Abakwa Madzikane (Z) - People of Madzikane Amakholwa (Z/X) - A Christian convert Igqira (X) - Expert witch finder/ diviner/ healer Imbizo (Z) - Gathering of people called by a traditional leader Imbongi (Z/X) - A praise poet Ingcubhe (X) - A festival celebrating the first harvest of a new season Igqwira (X) -Sorcerer Inkosi (Z/X) - Chief or ruler Inkosi Enkhulu (Z/X) - A great chief Inyanga (Z) - Doctor/herbalist/ diviner Iphakathi (Z/X) - Councillor 1 The definitions are generally drawn from A Dictionary o f South African English on Historical Principles by Rhodes University (http://dsae.co.za). vii Isinduna (Z/X) - Headman/ officer responsible for overseeing the affairs of a district made up of a number of villages Izithebe (X) - Family head Izithile (X) - A ward Lobola (Z/X) - Bridewealth Mabelete (S) - Those who kept their guns Mafisa (S) - Assigning representatives, often family members, as senior chiefs with the aim of allowing the state to grow Mateketa - Those who held licenses, i.e. gave in their guns Mlungu (Z/X) - A white person Pitso (S) - A gathering or conference of people Ubuthi (Z/X) - Bewitching matter/ harmful substance Ukubhaca (Z) - To hide away Umguyo (X) - War dance Umhlahlo (X) - Trial by smelling out Umthakathi (Z/X) - A witch or wizard/ practicing of evil magic Place Names, Personal Names and Titles The accepted spellings of a number of place names in the geographical area of study have changed in the last two decades. The two most important are Mthatha instead of Umtata and Mzimkhulu in place of Umzimkulu. I have used the contemporary usage, except in direct quotes, in which case the older spellings have been retained. The names of individuals, generally chiefs, were spelt in numerous ways in colonial documents. The spellings of Mditshwa include Umditchwa and Umditshwa. Mhlontlo appears often as Umhlonhlo or Mhlonthlo. The name of the Sotho chief Makoai has numerous forms in the colonial record, the most common of which was Makwai. Except for in quotes, the accepted spellings Mditshwa, Mhlontlo and Makoai have been used. There is some debate about the titles that should be used when referring to indigenous leaders. Should they be called chiefs, great chiefs or by the English term king? This is not simply a linguistic issue or academic nitpicking. The South Africa constitution recognizes different types of traditional leaders and at the moment there is much legal debate about what viii constitutes a chiefdom versus a kingdom. I have used the generally acceptable practice of referring to leaders by their first names, i.e. Victoria rather than Her Majesty Queen Victoria. Comments on Terminology I have not changed the language used in any direct quotes as they reflect the context in which they were written and reveal the attitudes and beliefs of those who wrote them. Some of the words used in these quotes are now considered historically inaccurate and offensive. The word tribe was widely used by writers until the 1960s to describe African social and political units but has now been discarded as inaccurate and prerogative. There is the nonsensical argument that the word Kaffir was originally not offensive. In fact from the tone and the context in which it was written it is clear that most white writers and politicians intended it to be a dismissive term even in the nineteenth century. ix Acknowledgements I would like to thank the following people for their help in the preparation of this work: Mr Bennie Khobo for accompanying me to Sulenkama and sharing his knowledge of Hlubi history; Mrs Anne Clarkson for her assistance at the Cape Town Archives; Mr John Deare for allowing me access to the Natal Inland Family History Society’s copies of the Natal Witness; Chief Fodo for the tour of the Nhlangwini Cultural Village and pointing out Fodo’s burial site; Mrs Barbara Haviside for accompanying me to Moteri’s Kop and Chevy Chase; Mr Sandile Mkhulise for Sidoyi’s praise poem; Mr Pieter Nel and the staff of the Pietermaritzburg Archives; Prof. Jeff Peires who was originally appointed supervisor and assisted with the proposal; Mrs Shelagh Spencer for allowing me to photograph Donald Strachan diaries; Mrs Audrey Steenkamp and Mrs Yvonne Mjoli of the East Griqualand Museum in Kokstad for access to the Kokstad Advertisers and trips around East Griqualand and Prof. John Wright for pointing me to the literature on the Mfengu and the debate surrounding their origins and ethnic identity. A special word of thanks to my supervisor Prof. Julia Wells of Rhodes University for her many insightful comments and in particular influencing my understanding of the collective nature of indigenous leadership. x Introduction On Monday, 17 May 1904, after deliberating for just 25 minutes, a jury of nine white men in Grahamstown found the Mpondomise chief Mhlontlo not guilty of murdering the magistrate Hamilton Hope in October 1880 at Sulenkama, near Qumbu in the Eastern Cape. When the news of the chief’s acquittal reached the small town of Kokstad in East Griqualand, a meeting under the auspices of the Farmers’ Association was hastily called. It was resolved at the gathering to collect signatures from