LONGING AND BELONGING: A STUDY OF ACCULTURATION AND ENCULTURATION OF ETHNIC AUSTRALIAN STUDENTS AND ITS INFLUENCES ON PSYCHOSOCIAL CONSTRUCTS NYRIE NALBANDIAN Bachelor of Science (Psychology) Bachelor of Education (Sec. Ed., Hons.) A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Social Sciences and Psychology Western Sydney University © Nyrie Nalbandian, 2016 Dedicated to all those who have sought and seek a more promising future in Australia. ii STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICATION The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that I have not submitted this material, either in full or in part, for a degree at this or any other institution. …………………………………………… (Signature) Nyrie Nalbandian August, 2016 iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “Sometimes you have to let a person go so they can grow. Because, over the course of their lives, it is not what you do for them, but what you have taught them to do for themselves that will make them a successful human being” (Marc Chernoff, 2012). To my chief PhD mentor and supervisor, Doctor Nida Denson, thank you for your unwavering commitment, support, valuable advice and lessons which have cultivated challenges feeding my hunger for research and learning. Your gentle guidance has been pivotal during this journey, allowing me to grow as a researcher and I am forever grateful. I would like to also advance my heartfelt thanks to my associate supervisors and mentors Doctor Katrina Barker and Associate Professor Carol Reid, both have provided me with invaluable advice and constructive direction. I would also like to thank Associate Professor Gawaian Bodkin-Andrews for being my statistics mentor, your expertise, patience and generosity are immeasurable. Nida, Katrina, Carol and Gawaian, together we make a fantastic team and I look forward to our continued collegiality on future research projects. I also wish to acknowledge Professor Rhonda Craven and Doctor Marjorie Seaton for their significant contributions during the initial conceptualisation stage of this research project. Deepest thanks also to Professor Kevin Dunn and the ‘Challenging Racism Project’ team for continuing to foster my passion for research. I would also like to thank Professor John Berry for his time spent mentoring and assisting me with the conceptual development of this project. Thank you also to all the schools which took part in this investigation, this would not have been possible without the dedication and time of your staff and students. To my PhD peers, Doctor Katrina Newey, Doctor Natasha Magson, Doctor Lucy Hobby, and Ryan Thorneycroft, thank you for the chats, teas, lunches and iv above all, the friendships we have developed over these past years, I will treasure them for a lifetime. Furthermore, I would like to extend my thanks to all the staff at the School of Social Sciences and Psychology and Graduate Research Services for your continued administrative support. Most importantly, to my parents, the way you have dealt with life’s hardships and overcome them with graciousness and integrity is inspirational. Your love and support has been infinite and boundless. Thank you for opening those algebra text books in my early primary years, dropping me off to tutoring classes, pushing me through Saturday school, and staying up with me in the wee hours of the morning while studying my VCE . While we may be a state apart, the distance seems ever so small when you both lighten my burdens over a quick phone call. Although you are both reluctant to accept it, you have both played a pivotal role during this journey, by teaching me that ‘energy and persistence conquer all things.’ – Benjamin Franklin. Kristine, thank you for being the supportive sister you are, your thoughtfulness and love I treasure immensely. To my grandparents Kevork and Rose, thank you for your encouragement and always cheering me on from the sidelines. Finally, to my husband Robert, thank you for encouraging me to follow my dreams and reach for the stars. I could not have achieved this without you, thank you for not complaining about the toast and eggs we had for dinner and the extra dishes in the sink. Your unconditional love, dedication, compassion and companionship have been indispensable and enduring. I truly feel blessed to have you as my partner in life. To all those who have been asking, yes I have finally finished! v ABSTRACT Cross-cultural psychology researchers have revealed the psychological impacts of biculturalism, stressing the significance of adopting cultural proficiencies in both ethnic and mainstream cultures. Despite these findings prompting a proliferation of international research in both acculturation and enculturation in the last three decades, much more remains to be done to reveal the multi-faceted and intricate nature of these processes within the Australian context. Extending on the works by Miller (2007, 2010), this thesis adopted a mixed methods design to elucidate a more nuanced bilinear domain-specific model of acculturation and enculturation among ethnocultural adolescents within Australia’s most culturally diverse state, New South Wales. Additionally, the cross-sectional study examined the domain-specific relationships of these processes with a series of psychosocial and educational outcomes to inform current educational practices. To address the research gap for a reliable and valid assessment of these processes, the investigation adapted and developed a new psychometrically sound Domain-Specific Acculturation and Enculturation Measure (DSAEM). Survey data was collected among 200 secondary students attending one of four independent ethnic day schools. Students ranged from the ages of 11 to 16 years (M = 13.48 years, SD = 1.31) and consisted of 110 males and 90 females. Preliminary confirmatory factor analyses, invariance testing, as well as qualitative data, conveyed that the DSAEM holds promise as a valuable assessment tool for use within clinical and educational settings. Moreover, findings revealed significant associations between particular domains of acculturation/enculturation and various psychological and educational outcomes, providing further support for the bilinear domain-specific conceptualisation. Additionally, findings from qualitative interviews also illustrated the context-specific vi and dynamic rather than static nature of acculturative and enculturative processes. Lastly, theoretical contributions as well as implications to clinical and educational practices are delineated. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication ................................................................................................................... ii Statement of Authentication........................................................................................ iii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... iv Abstract ...................................................................................................................... vi Table of Contents ..................................................................................................... viii List of Tables ...........................................................................................................xxiii List of Figures .......................................................................................................xxviii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1 CHAPTER 2: CONTEXT AND THEORY IN THE DYNAMICS OF CULTURAL CONTINUITY AND CHANGE ........................................................ 8 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 8 Conceptualising and Defining Acculturation and Enculturation.............................. 9 Plural Societies ....................................................................................................... 13 Acculturating Groups ............................................................................................. 13 Immigrant Groups .................................................................................................. 14 Immigrant adaptation in Australia. ..................................................................... 15 Ethnocultural Groups ............................................................................................. 18 Armenians in Australia ........................................................................................... 19 Greeks in Australia ................................................................................................. 21 Jewish People in Australia...................................................................................... 22 Lebanese in Australia ............................................................................................. 24 Significance and Implications for the Current Study ............................................. 26 Cross-Cultural Psychology: The Interpretive Position of the Current Investigation ................................................................................................................................ 28 Conceptual Framework for Contextualizing Acculturation and Enculturation ...... 30 The ecocultural framework. ................................................................................ 30 A Conceptual Framework