CHILD HOLOCAUST SURVIVORS: TRIALS, TRIBULATIONS AND MEMORY OF TIME SPENT IN GHETTOS AND/OR CAMPS ____________________________________ A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of California State University, Fullerton ____________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in History ____________________________________ By Ana Luisa Cisneros Thesis Committee Approval: Cora Granata, Department of History, Chair Nancy Fitch, Department of History Stephen Neufeld, Department of History Spring, 2018 ABSTRACT In the vast scholarship of Holocaust history, a lacuna exists with regards to child Holocaust survivors. It would not be until after the 1980s, when child Holocaust survivors were given acknowledgement as well as a survivors group in which to participate. By using interviews from the University of Southern California’s Shoah Foundation archives of fourteen child survivors, as well as memoirs, scholars of Holocaust history are provided with a broader view of their experiences; from how their childhoods were transformed throughout their early lives in European countries and all at ages ranging from three to eighteen through the duration of the war, to how those experiences affected them into adulthood, emigration, and parenthood. To survive day after day, these children used a variety of survival strategies. The experiences they lived through shaping not only themselves as they matured, but also their children and families. Ultimately, I argue there is no singular experience for children in the Holocaust, nor in their legacy thereafter. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................. v Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1 Historiography ...................................................................................................... 5 Finding Testimonies ............................................................................................. 9 Structure ................................................................................................................ 10 2. LIFE AFTER THE HOLOCAUST: ..................................................................... 12 Never Forget, Never Again ................................................................................... 12 Representation of Jewish Children Post-War ....................................................... 16 Living Through Traumatic Events ........................................................................ 18 Silence After War ................................................................................................. 22 Child Survivors Emerge ........................................................................................ 23 Bearing Witness .................................................................................................... 25 Legacy ................................................................................................................... 28 Descendants of Survivors ..................................................................................... 51 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 59 3. CHILDHOOD ....................................................................................................... 61 Childhood Throughout the Ages ........................................................................... 61 Childhood in Other Disciplines ............................................................................ 76 Children and War .................................................................................................. 86 Children and Trauma ............................................................................................ 88 Children and Resiliency ........................................................................................ 90 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 94 iii 4. HARROWING EXPERIENCES .......................................................................... 96 Life for Jewish Children in Nazi Ghettos and Camps .......................................... 96 Ghettos .................................................................................................................. 97 Experiences of Children ........................................................................................ 104 Concentration Camps ............................................................................................ 127 Experiences of Child Survivors ............................................................................ 128 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 161 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 166 iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It goes without saying that undertaking the writing of a Master’s thesis is a long and difficult journey. Having to do so while working fulltime adds on additional stress and pressure, especially when one keeps having to extend their graduation date. That being said, I first need to thank all of my students past and present, that have been with me through the journey of writing this thesis. I remember thinking–after all my coursework had been completed–all right, just finish this last (and long) paper, and you’re all set! That was certainly easier said than done. My students (mostly juniors at the time) were there when I started page one . and since then, those student have graduated and gone on, graduated, and many are currently in pursuit of their own degrees. Luckily, I managed to complete my master’s before they even finished any type of post-secondary degree! To all the students from the class of 2014–2021, thank you, for putting up with a stressed out teacher, asking (harassing) me repeatedly to get to work and finish! I cannot believe it has taken me this long to finish this one paper, but I hope one day any and all of my students, from 2005 to today, realize, that no matter how many things get in your way, if you persevere, the goals you set for yourself can be achieved. Eventually. To all of my family and friends, thank you for putting up with me as well during these times. I know there were times when I was reading, researching, watching v testimonies, etc. and I completely ignored you. There were other times when I had to put those things on the back burner to save my sanity, and you were all there. For the times you let me rant, or gave me a shoulder to lean on, or cheered me to the finish line, my profound thanks, and you know, I’m always here to return the favor when you need it! To my CrossFit Lifted coaches and friends, the stress relief you provided as we went through insane WOD’s helped me get motivated and keep going–because if you can survive CrossFit, you can survive just about anything! Carmen, my sister, my heartbeat, my best friend, I cannot even quantify the amount of gratitude I feel for you. You hadn’t even finished high school when I started my master’s program, and now, we will both be graduating the same year–I’m proud of you, sis, and I know you worked just as hard for your two bachelor’s as I did for my master’s. You’ll be another amazing teacher! It runs in the family. Mom, you are the wind beneath my wings–there’s no other way to say it. You are and have always been the best role model and my biggest supporter. I pray every day that I will grow up to be just like you one day; you are so many things I aspire to be! To my brothers, my dad, my aunts and uncles, cousins, nieces and nephews–all of you helped push me along in one way or another. Perhaps a kind word, a tolerant ear, that bit of encouragements, a smile, a laugh; it all counted, it was and is all valued and appreciated. Clearly, I procrastinate–this thesis could have and should have been done years ago–but regardless, you loved me and supported me and when you find yourself procrastinating, I will be there for you. I’m pretty sure it’s genetic. vi Just about every professor I had while a student of Cal State Fullerton had a positive effect on my journey as a historian, but I would be remiss if I did not extend extra praise upon Dr. Cora Granata. When I first began my master’s, I did not realize that I was facing some medical issues which could have cut my academics–and life–short. Regardless, through that time in my life, subsequent surgery, and full recovery, I continued focusing the best I could on my studies and my career. During my time at CSUF, the classes I took with Dr. Granata were always the one I most looked forward to. I told her once before, but she is the professor I would see myself being if and when I am able to pursue a doctorate and move from a secondary classroom to a collegiate one. I appreciate professors such as she; one who set the standards high and has full confidence that any and all of her students can achieve it. The tasks we were given in her classes meant something, and I learned so much about myself as a student in working hard to get an A in her classes–with her class I felt an A was just a little richer, a little more significant than in any