University of Denver Digital Commons @ DU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Graduate Studies 1-1-2011 Intuitive Virtue in Plato, Augustine, and Gandhi Brian Timothy Keady University of Denver Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd Part of the Ancient History, Greek and Roman through Late Antiquity Commons, and the Philosophy Commons Recommended Citation Keady, Brian Timothy, "Intuitive Virtue in Plato, Augustine, and Gandhi" (2011). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 842. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/842 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Studies at Digital Commons @ DU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ DU. For more information, please contact [email protected],[email protected]. INTUITIVE VIRTUE IN PLATO, AUGUSTINE, AND GANDHI __________ A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the University of Denver and the Iliff School of Theology Joint PhD Program __________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy __________ by Brian Keady June 2011 Advisor: Naomi Reshotko © Copyright by Brian Keady 2011 All Rights Reserved Author: Brian Keady Title: INTUITIVE VIRTUE IN PLATO, AUGUSTINE, AND GANDHI Advisor: Naomi Reshotko Degree Date: June 2011 ABSTRACT In this study, I argue that Plato, Augustine, and Gandhi hold in common the view that (1) in order to develop understanding of ultimate reality one must—in addition to engaging in contemplation of that reality—engage ethically in the practical world, and (2) in order to engage ethically in the practical world, one must also seek to understand ultimate reality through contemplation. Much of what is original in the dissertation emerges at the level of the sub-theses I present in support of these ideas. I examine (1) and (2) in Plato by offering a reinterpretation of his conception of dialectic—the practice by which he says we pursue knowledge of the Forms. Focusing on the Republic and Philebus, I argue that dialectic for Plato consists in more than just the various types of the question-and-answer method. He also considers practical experience an essential element of the practice, and closely links dialectic to ethical participation in Forms and the development of a kind of practical expertise guided by noêsis (intuitive insight, understanding). I examine (1) and (2) in Augustine by analyzing his account of the relationship between the human mind and the divine ideas. Particular attention is given to (1). I show how, on Augustine’s view, one can cultivate not just knowledge (scientia), but divine wisdom (sapientia) while engaged in endeavors associated with the active life. We shall see that Augustine finds it possible for the mind to process mutable and immutable reality ii simultaneously, and that, as the mind purifies and reforms itself, ethical engagement in temporal affairs does not necessarily hinder—and often enhances—the mind’s ability to apprehend intelligible objects. I examine (1) and (2) in Gandhi through an analysis of his conception of the inner voice, prayer, and the life of selfless service. Particular attention is given to (1). Even more than Plato and Augustine, Gandhi believes that we come to know and live in harmony with the eternal by pursuing it while engaging ethically in the world. Still, echoing these authors, he maintains that our ability to epistemically access the divine is not just “a kind of ‘open sesame’ which has just to be shown to the millions”— cultivation of the inner voice requires discipline and constant effort, as well as a radical transformation in worldview. iii Acknowledgments This study is dedicated to my friends, family, teachers, and especially a few great souls who have been the true source of inspiration of anything good found within it. iv Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Action, Contemplation, and Intuitive Insight ........................................................... 6 A Few Preliminary Clarifications .............................................................................. 31 Methodology ................................................................................................................ 47 Chapter Two: Plato’s Practical Dialectic ............................................................................... 49 Plato’s Dialectic ........................................................................................................... 51 Practical Dialectic in the Republic ............................................................................... 55 Practical Dialectic in the Philebus ............................................................................... 81 Chapter Three: Action and Divine Wisdom in Augustine ................................................. 96 Forms and the Human Mind ..................................................................................... 99 Contemplation and the Ethical Life ....................................................................... 104 Intellection and the Multi-Tasking Soul ................................................................. 119 Chapter Four: Gandhi on Contemplative Action and the Inner Voice ......................... 130 Ethical Conduct and Divine Knowledge ............................................................... 133 Following the Inner Voice ....................................................................................... 143 Action, Discipline, and Inner Purification ............................................................. 151 Objections and Concerns ......................................................................................... 161 Chapter Five: Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 173 The Platonic Model ................................................................................................... 173 The Augustinian Model ............................................................................................ 181 The Gandhian Model ............................................................................................... 186 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 194 v 1 INTRODUCTION Over the centuries, philosophers have puzzled over the question of whether our time on earth is best spent devoted to a life of contemplation, a life of action, or some mixture of the two. The debate has been particularly lively among those who believe that truth, knowledge, and happiness are grounded in an ultimate reality that transcends phenomenal existence. Though from different cultures, eras, and backgrounds, Plato, Augustine, and Gandhi share this basic perspective, and each has a great deal to say about the action/contemplation debate and about how we should live so as to best pursue knowledge of the eternal. In this study, I argue that Plato, Augustine, and Gandhi hold in common the view that (1) in order to develop understanding of ultimate reality one must—in addition to engaging in contemplation of that reality—engage ethically in the practical world, and (2) in order to engage ethically in the practical world, one must also seek to understand ultimate reality through contemplation. Much of what is original in the dissertation emerges at the level of the sub-theses I present in support of these ideas. I examine (1) and (2) in Plato by offering a 1 reinterpretation of his conception of dialectic—the practice by which he says we pursue knowledge of the Forms. Focusing on the Republic and Philebus, I argue that dialectic for Plato consists in more than just the various types of the question-and-answer method. He also considers practical experience an essential element of the practice, and closely links dialectic to ethical participation in Forms and the development of a kind of practical expertise guided by noêsis (intuitive insight, understanding). I examine (1) and (2) in Augustine by analyzing his account of the relationship between the human mind and the divine ideas. Particular attention is given to (1). I show how, on Augustine’s view, one can cultivate not just knowledge (scientia), but divine wisdom (sapientia) while engaged in endeavors associated with the active life. We shall see that Augustine finds it possible for the mind to process mutable and immutable reality simultaneously, and that, as the mind purifies and reforms itself, ethical engagement in temporal affairs does not necessarily hinder—and often enhances—the mind’s ability to apprehend intelligible objects. I examine (1) and (2) in Gandhi through an analysis of his conception of the inner voice, prayer, and the life of selfless service. Particular attention is given to (1). Even more than Plato and Augustine, Gandhi believes that we come to know and live in harmony with the eternal by pursuing it while engaging ethically in the world. Still, echoing these authors, he maintains that our ability to epistemically access the divine is not just “a kind of ‘open sesame’ which has just to be shown to the millions”— cultivation of the inner voice requires discipline and constant effort, as well as a radical transformation in worldview. 2 A few key words should be clarified from the outset. “Intuition” and “intuitive insight” are employed