THE FOUNDATIONS OF HIP-HOP ENCYCLOPEDIA Edited by Anthony Kwame Harrison Editedand Craigby Anthony E. Arthur Kwame Harrison and Craig E. Arthur Deejaying, emceeing, graffiti writing, and breakdancing. Together, these artistic expressions combined to form the foundation of one of the most significant cultural phenomena of the late 20th century — Hip-Hop. Rooted in African American culture and experience, the music, fashion, art, and attitude that is Hip-Hop crossed both racial boundaries and international borders. The Foundations of Hip-Hop Encyclopedia is a general reference work for students, scholars, and virtually anyone interested in Hip-Hop’s formative years. In thirty- six entries, it covers the key developments, practices, personalities, and products that mark the history of Hip- Hop from the 1970s through the early ‘90s. All entries are written by students at Virginia Tech who enthusiastically enrolled in a course on Hip-Hop taught by Dr. Anthony Kwame Harrison, author of Hip Hop Underground, and co-taught by Craig E. Arthur. Because they are students writing about issues and events that took place well before most of them were born, their entries capture the distinct character of young people reflecting back on how a music and culture that has profoundly shaped their lives came to be. Future editions are planned as more students take the class, making this a living, evolving work. Published by the Department of Sociology at Virginia Tech in Association with Virginia Tech Publishing The Foundations of Hip-Hop Encyclopedia The Foundations of Hip-Hop Encyclopedia is part of the Virginia Tech Student Publications series. This series contains book-length works authored and edited by Virginia Tech undergraduate and graduate students and published in collaboration with Virginia Tech Publishing. Often these books are the culmination of class projects for advanced or capstone courses. The series provides the opportunity for students to write, edit, and ultimately publish their own books for the world to learn from and enjoy. The Foundations of Hip-Hop Encyclopedia A Class Project by Students in the Department of Sociology at Virginia Tech Edited by Anthony Kwame Harrison and Craig E. Arthur VIRGINIA TECH DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY BLACKSBURG • VIRGINIA Copyright © 2019 Virginia Tech Individual entires copyright © 2019 respective authors First published 2019 by the Virginia Tech Department of Sociology in asso- ciation with Virginia Tech Publishing. Virginia Tech Department of Sociology 560 McBryde Hall (0137) 225 Stanger Street Blacksburg, VA 24061 Virginia Tech Publishing University Libraries at Virginia Tech 560 Drillfield Dr. Blacksburg, VA 24061 This collection and its individual entries are covered by the following Creative Commons License: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) You are free to: Share — Copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format. The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms. Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material Under the following terms: Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes. ShareAlike — If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same license as the original. The above is a summary of the full license, which is available at the follow- ing URL: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ ISBN: 978-1-949373-13-4 (paperback) ISBN: 978-1-949373-14-1 (PDF) ISBN: 978-1-949373-15-8 (epub) DOI: https://doi.org/10.21061/foundations-of-hip-hop Front cover art by Isabella J. M. Land with design by Lauren Holt. Back cover art by GoodHomieSigns with design by Lauren Holt. Acknowledgments This first edition ofThe Foundations of Hip-Hop Encyclo- pedia was authored by students in the spring 2019 Foun- dations of Hip-Hop (Topics in Africana Studies/Culture) course taught at Virginia Tech. Participating students in the course each selected an entry topic from a list of over a hundred potential topics. This list was compiled by the editors and included important elements and practices, organizations and record labels, places and artifacts, phe- nomena and subgenres, and pioneers and personalities. Notably, outside of a handful of key individuals, includ- ing important deejays, we chose not to include popular recording artists. Including such artists, we believed, could initiate unresolvable debate over who was and who was not included. In addition, we felt that asking students to write about celebrity personalities could encourage a form of journalistic zeal that, quite frankly, we were hoping to avoid. In the place of recording artists, our list included important albums and songs. We admit that this brings many of the same complications (that is, questions of what gets included and fantastic, or fan-like, writing) as record- ing artists; however, we also felt that focusing on pieces of music rather than people would help mitigate some of these problems. Each entry has an approximate word length of either three hundred, five hundred, or seven hundred words. Students were instructed to do independent research into their selected topic. They then met as groups organized around common themes to peer-review and discuss their entry i drafts with one another. While maintaining the encyclope- dic character of a reference book meant to supply general and, to a certain degree, comprehensive information on a given topic, we also encouraged each contributor to take ownership of the topic and, when warranted, to make an original and personal contribution to the body of knowl- edge surrounding it. As editors, we are thrilled with the contributions. Acknowledging the limited overall number of entries, we feel that what we have compiled fulfills the terms and expectations of an encyclopedia focusing on foundational aspects of Hip-Hop and its history. At the same time, we feel that each entry conveys something of the distinct character of young people, most of whom were born around the turn of the twenty-first century (long after any of the topics they have written about came into being), reflecting back on the foundations that helped to establish the music and culture that for many continues to entertain, motivate, teach, and inspire. Whereas the number of entries in this first edition is small, we expect that this will be an ongoing project that future iterations of the class can contribute to. A final note surrounds spelling and other treatments of words. Other than as proper names (for example, DJ Kool Herc), we have chosen to go with the spellings deejay and emcee for consistency. Following a lively in-class debate, the students decided (via majority vote) to spell Hip-Hop with two capitalized H’s and a hyphen: Hip-Hop. Also, when an author of an entry uses a word that is also a sep- arate entry in the encyclopedia, that word has been set in bold typeface to indicate to the reader there is more in the encyclopedia to read on that subject. ii Introduction The writer James McBride once referred to the founding of Hip-Hop as “the most important cultural event of [his] lifetime” (2007). By this he meant that Hip-Hop, with its irrepressible force and defiant spirit, transformed the global popular music landscape in a way that no music had or has since, arguably, the arrival of swing jazz in the 1930s. Starting from a singular point of origin, or origin story (Harrison 2009), Hip-Hop encapsulates the temporal and spatial framings of the African diaspora. It crystaliz- es at a distinct postindustrial moment in the history of American labor and race relations (Rose 1994), catalyzed by particular technological innovations. Yet it signals the unfulfilled promises of postbellum society, most imme- diately “America’s short-lived federal commitment” to the supposed achievements of the Civil Rights movement (Rose 1994, 22). At the same time, Hip-Hop fed off of the cultural dynamism of 1970s New York City—an urban land- scape that included descendants of enslaved Africans from the US North, the US South, as well as the Anglophone and Hispanophone Caribbean. Furthermore, its emancipatory bravado and political urgency have resonated with black and other marginalized communities wherever its sounds and sentiments have spread. Most commentators on Hip-Hop recognize it as a constel- lation of black diasporic practices and priorities, which came together in 1970s New York around a handful of distinct yet interconnected expressive traditions. These “elements,” as they are often called, include particular iii approaches to music composition (deejaying), dancing (breaking), public visual art (graffiti writing), and vocal performance (emceeing). Starting from this four-element model, Hip-Hop aficionados regularly discuss and debate additional elements. For example, music composition practices have ridden the technological wave from deejays’ live manipulation of vinyl records to more deliberate prac- tices of Hip-Hop beat-making (Schloss 2014). At various moments claims have been made for beatboxing, fashion, and knowledge (Gosa 2015) as important elements. As an offshoot of this last candidate, we join scholars like Justin Williams (2011) in suggesting that knowledge of Hip-Hop’s history and foundations is uniquely important to validating membership in the imagined Hip-Hop nation (Anderson 1983). It is in this spirit that we are delighted to present the first edition ofThe Foundations of Hip-Hop Encyclopedia. The encyclopedia is conceived of as a general reference for students doing work on Hip-Hop’s historical dimensions or interested in learning about some of the fundamen- tal practices, principles, and contexts around which this all-important cultural phenomenon developed.