Achieving Water Security Praise for the book ‘Water security matters, and it matters most to the most vulnerable individuals, households, communities and nations. Ethiopia is home to many millions of people who are anything but water-secure. This publication shines a light on such people, and it provides numerous inter-disciplinary insights into the causes of water insecurity and into some of the measures which are needed to relieve that insecurity. There are too few research programmes of this type which focus on situations of real need in the world, and which grapple with the difficult issues associated with the relief of poverty and vulnerability. I warmly welcome this contribution to the literature, and hope that this work will inform the practices and policies of government and development part- ners in Ethiopia.’ Richard C. Carter, Visiting Professor, Cranfield University, UK ‘Consolidating these findings from the RiPPLE programme into a single volume to address water security in Ethiopia has generated an essential primer and benchmark in realizing domestic water supply and sanitation in Africa’s second most populous country. Being informed by five years of research and learning, this is a valuable insight into a critical dimension of Ethiopia’s future security.’ Melvin Woodhouse, Associate Director, LTS International, UK Achieving Water Security Lessons from research in water supply, sanitation and hygiene in Ethiopia Edited by Roger Calow, Eva Ludi and Josephine Tucker Practical Action Publishing Ltd The Schumacher Centre Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby, Warwickshire CV23 9QZ, UK www.practicalactionpublishing.org Copyright © Overseas Development Institute, 2013 ISBN 978 1 85339 7639 Hardback ISBN 978 1 85339 7646 Paperback ISBN 978 1 78044 763 6 Library Ebook ISBN 978 1 78044 764 3 Ebook All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without the written permission of the publishers. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Roger Calow, Eva Ludi and Josephine Tucker, eds (2013) Achieving Water Security: Lessons from Research in Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene in Ethiopia, Practical Action Publishing, Rugby. The contributors have asserted their rights under the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 to be identified as authors of their respective contributions. Since 1974, Practical Action Publishing (formerly Intermediate Technology Publications and ITDG Publishing) has published and disseminated books and information in support of international development work throughout the world. Practical Action Publishing is a trading name of Practical Action Publishing Ltd (Company Reg. No. 1159018), the wholly owned publishing company of Practical Action. Practical Action Publishing trades only in support of its parent charity objectives and any profits are covenanted back to Practical Action (Charity Reg. No. 247257, Group VAT Registration No. 880 9924 76). This material has been funded by UK aid from the UK Government, however the views expressed do not necessarily reflect the UK Government’s official policies. The opinions expressed in this book are those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect the views of their institutions. Cover photo: A girl on her way to collect water from a pond Photo credit: Iva Zimova / Panos Indexed by Liz Fawcett, Harrogate, North Yorkshire Typeset by Bookcraft Ltd, Stroud, Gloucestershire Contents Photos and figures vii Tables viii Boxes ix Foreword x Acknowledgements xii Acronyms xiii Glossary xvii Introduction 1 Roger Calow, Zemede Abebe and Alan Nicol 1 Ethiopia’s water resources, policies, and institutions 25 Eva Ludi, Bethel Terefe, Roger Calow and Gulilat Birhane 2 WASH sector monitoring 49 John Butterworth, Katharina Welle, Kristof Bostoen and Florian Schaefer 3 Innovative approaches for extending access to water services: the potential of multiple-use water services and self-supply 69 Marieke Adank, John Butterworth, Sally Sutton and Zemede Abebe 4 Sanitation and hygiene promotion in rural communities: the Health Extension Programme 89 Peter Newborne and Anu Liisanantti 5 Sustainability of water services in Ethiopia 107 Nathaniel Mason, Alan MacDonald, Sobona Mtisi, Israel Deneke Haylamicheal and Habtamu Abebe 6 Water for livelihood resilience, food security, and poverty reduction 127 Josephine Tucker, Zelalem Lema and Samson Eshetu Lemma 7 Responding to climate variability and change: implications for planned adaptation 147 Lindsey Jones, Lorraine Coulter, Million Getnet Gebreyes, Beneberu Shimelis Feleke, Naomi Oates, Leulseged Yirgu Gebreamlak and Josephine Tucker VI acHIEVING water SECURITY 8 Policy and practice influence through research: critical reflections on RiPPLE’s approach 173 Josephine Tucker, Ewen Le Borgne and Marialivia Iotti Index 195 Photos and figures Photos Pumps drawing irrigation water from the Awash River 28 Collecting water for domestic use from the irrigation system in Ifa Daba 77 Contrasting experiences of irrigation (in Box 6.1) 139 Figures 1.1 Schematic map of Ethiopia’s river basins 27 1.2 Proportion of national populations without access to improved drinking water 29 2.1 Rural water supply coverage 51 3.1 Pathways towards multiple-use water services 75 3.2 Benefit/cost and incremental benefit/cost ratios 76 3.3 Comparison of water quality in different source types (wet season) 77 4.1 A typical ‘sanitation ladder’ in rural SNNPR 94 5.1 Conceptual framework for sustainability of water services 109 5.2 The sustainability of water points related to aquifer productivity for three woredas in Benishangul-Gumuz 118 5.3 Estimated groundwater storage in Africa 120 6.1 Causal pathways linking lack of water with food insecurity 128 6.2 Incidence and depth of poverty among households with and without improved water supply in East Hararghe 131 6.3 Seasonal calendars of water access 134 7.1 Rainfall distribution in Ethiopia 150 7.2 Coarse-resolution GCM outputs showing projected changes in temperature at a sub-national scale 152 7.3 Water use for human consumption as a percentage of minimum human needs in the highland Wheat Barley Potato (WBP) livelihood zone 155 7.4 Water use by livestock in the lowland Shinile Agropastoral (SAP) livelihood zone 156 8.1 Linear technology transfer model versus multi-stakeholder learning process 178 8.2 RiPPLE’s research studies and influencing areas 179 Tables 1.1 Water-related targets in the Growth and Transformation Plan 30 1.2 Water supply and sanitation coverage and investment figures 35 1.3 Non-functionality of rural water schemes in 10 regions 36 2.1 National and globally-reported rural and urban water supply coverage figures for Ethiopia, 2010 51 2.2 Compilation of national and internationally-reported data points for rural water supply coverage 53 4.1 Sanitation and hygiene – elements of the Health Extension Programme 92 6.1 Experience of water-related disease among different age groups 131 6.2 Experience of diarrhoeal disease among individuals with differing access to improved water and handwashing practices 132 8.1 RiPPLE strategies for policy influence: tackling common challenges 175 8.2 Major RiPPLE influencing strategies beyond the LPA 181 Boxes 1.1 Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy (1999) 31 1.2 Financing modalities for WASH 33 1.3 Financing WASH services in East Hararghe: findings from RiPPLE research 34 1.4 Institutional responsibilities under the WASH MoU 38 1.5 Key principles in WASH implementation 43 2.1 Coverage as defined by the Ministry of Water and Energy 52 2.2 Data collected in the National WASH Inventory 57 2.3 Rural water supply in the National WASH Inventory 58 2.4 Encouraging local use of data 60 3.1 Recent milestones and policy developments for self-supply 79 3.2 Self-supply and multiple uses in Mirab Abaya 84 5.1 What is a water service? 109 5.2 Unheard voices 113 5.3 Implications of climate change for water services sustainability 119 6.1 Contrasting experiences of irrigation 139 7.1 Summarized projections of future global climate trends related to freshwater resources 148 7.2 Farmers’ perceptions of change 151 7.3 Summary of GCM ensemble projections for Ethiopia 151 7.4 National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) 158 8.1 The struggle for information 174 8.2 Action research 176 8.3 Learning and Practice Alliances 177 8.4 Enhancing scheme sustainability in two woredas 182 8.5 Expanding water services for multiple uses 182 8.6 Improving life for farmers: equitable water supply and better prices for vegetables 183 8.7 Influencing the Universal Access Plan and National WASH Inventory 184 8.8 Engaging on food security, climate change, and disaster risk management strategies 184 8.9 Improving scheme sustainability by building WASHCO capacity 185 8.10 Practical planning skills for woreda water officers 187 8.11 Embedding research approaches in national universities 188 Foreword Since 2006, the DFID-funded RiPPLE programme has provided invaluable support to the water and sanitation sector in Ethiopia. Drawing on the capa- bilities of local staff and working closely with the Government of Ethiopia, RiPPLE has made a significant contribution to capacity building, the genera- tion of new knowledge, and policy and practice around the delivery of water and sanitation services in rural areas. This is a major achievement, and some of the key highlights and findings are captured in this book. The challenge in meeting the water and sanitation needs of a growing population is a huge one, and climate change will make the challenge greater. But significant progress is being made, not least with the acceleration in water supply coverage under the Government of Ethiopia’s Growth and Transformation Plan. As RiPPLE enters its next phase as an independent organization, managed fully by Ethiopian staff, it can play a key role in supporting this effort: conducting high-quality research and providing evidence that helps extend and sustain access to water and sanitation services, and builds a water-secure future for all Ethiopians.