City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works All Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects 2013 Refugees and Resistance: International Activism for Grassroots Democracy and Human Rights in New York, Miami, and Haiti, 1957 to 1994 Carl Lindskoog The Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/1968 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] Refugees and Resistance: International Activism for Grassroots Democracy and Human Rights in New York, Miami, and Haiti, 1957 to 1994 by Carl Lindskoog A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in History in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of New York 2013 ii © 2013 Carl Lindskoog All Rights Reserved iii This manuscript has been read and accepted for the Graduate Faculty in History in satisfaction of the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Joshua B. Freeman ______________________ ______________________________________ Date Chair of Examining Committee Helena Rosenblatt ______________________ ______________________________________ Date Executive Officer Thomas Kessner Nancy Foner Millery Polyné Amy Chazkel Supervisory Committee THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK iv Abstract Refugees and Resistance: International Activism for Grassroots Democracy and Human Rights in New York, Miami, and Haiti, 1957 to 1994 by Carl Lindskoog Advisor: Professor Joshua B. Freeman This dissertation explores the evolution of political activism among Haitians in the United States from the formation of Haitian New York in the late 1950s to the return of Haitian President Jean-Bertrand Aristide to Haiti in 1994. It traces the efforts of Haitian activists to build bridges connecting New York and Miami to the grassroots organizations in Haiti, finding a considerable degree of success in their efforts to construct a transnational movement that had a substantial impact both in Haiti and in the United States. Shedding additional light on the interconnected history of Haiti and the United States, this dissertation also adds to the growing historiography on immigrant activism and international campaigns for democracy and human rights. At the outset, politics in Haitian New York was splintered among competing factions, though by the early 1970s there began to form a somewhat unified anti-Duvalier opposition movement. The arrival of the Haitian “boat people” in South Florida in the early 1970s continued the evolution of Haitian politics in the United States, triggering a refugee crisis that drew the attention of the activists in New York and forcing a reconsideration of political vision and strategy that had previously been solely concerned with the overthrow of the Duvalier dictatorship. The grassroots resistance in Haiti and in the United States saw a slight opening v with the arrival of President Jimmy Carter, but with Carter’s successor, Ronald Reagan, came a wave of repression in Haiti and stringent new policies toward Haitian refugees. The uprisings of 1985 and 1986 that toppled the Duvalier dictatorship transformed Haitian politics at home and abroad, enabling an expanded and tightened network of activism connecting New York, Miami, and Haiti, which grew from 1987 to 1989. The years 1990 and 1991 were the pinnacle moment for the linked popular movements in New York, Miami, and Haiti, though Haitian activists were soon forced to pour their energy into the overlapping campaigns aimed at reversing the coup against Haitian President Jean-Bertrand Aristide and defending the new wave of refugees that the coup produced. vi Acknowledgments I owe a debt of gratitude to so many, without whom I never would have completed this project. My advisor, Joshua B. Freeman, offered critical feedback at every stage and sage advice and reliable encouragement when I needed it most. I learned to ask and answer historical questions and began to develop this project in the research seminars overseen by Thomas Kessner and James Oakes. Professor Kessner in particular continued to offer enormously helpful guidance and encouragement all the way through the final draft of this dissertation. The late Alfonso Quiroz oversaw my study of Latin American history and consistently supported my efforts to develop a project that examined the relationship between Haiti and the United States. Nancy Foner offered much encouragement and guidance as I explored issues related to immigration. Millery Polyné encouraged me to pursue my research on Haiti and the Haitian diaspora and challenged me to deepen my analysis of the big questions at the heart of this project. With short notice, Amy Chazkel graciously agreed to read this dissertation and to serve on the dissertation committee and brought a valuable perspective and a wealth of insight to the discussion. A number of scholars were less involved in the project but still offered critical assistance. I benefited enormously from conversations with Carolle Charles, who urged me to rethink things when I was on the wrong track and put me in touch with a number of valuable research contacts. Alex Stepick and Francois Pierre-Louis answered questions and pointed me in the right direction early in the research process. Barbara Posadas taught the first seminar I took in graduate school and gave me my first introduction to the history of immigration and ethnicity in the United States. Rosemary Feurer and James Schmidt were my first mentors at the graduate level. And Tom F. Driver, who became a close friend and comrade during my years in New York, shared vii with me his love for Haiti and gave me an inspiring model for combining scholarship and activism. I was also fortunate to develop close friendships with fellow graduate students that helped me through the research and writing process. I am particularly grateful to Paul Naish and Thomas Harbison with whom I constituted an informal dissertation writing group and to Geoff Johnson, David Parsons, Antonia Levy, James Hoff, Renee McGarry, and Nathan Leslie for their help in exploring ideas and research problems and for their friendship and encouragement. I’m also grateful to Sandor John and Nicole Burrowes, who offered not only friendship but also an ongoing dialogue that complicated and enriched my understanding of the relationship between Latin America and the United States. My colleagues in the Humanities and Social Sciences at Raritan Valley Community College, particularly Lauren Braun-Strumfels, Kevin Reilly, Saulo Colon, and Brandyn Heppard, encouraged me to complete the dissertation as I was also beginning to navigate my first full-time faculty position. The research librarians and staff at the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture in Harlem were a great help in learning about and locating the treasures in that precious institution. I am also grateful for a research grant from the Professional Staff Congress-City University of New York, which funded some of my early research in South Florida. I was extremely fortunate to be able to conduct oral history interviews or have informal discussions with Marleine Bastien, Winnie Cantave, Marie Lily Cerat, members of SELA including Daniel Huttinot and Lionel Legros, Kim Ives, Tony Jean-Thenor, Ray Laforest, Jean- Robert Lafortune, Micheline Louis Charles, Ninaj Raoul, and Rose Micheline Saint-Jean, many viii of whom not only shared their experiences and perspectives with me but also put me in touch with other interviewees. Mesi anpil! Finally, my family members were the greatest source of encouragement and support. Throughout the long research and writing process they exhibited the utmost faith in my ability to finish this dissertation, even when I was much less confident. Michelle, Auguste, Marie, Dex, Celine, Yoonique, Dennis, and my sister, Tracy, were wonderfully supportive. My parents, Verna DeJong Lindskoog and Donald Lindskoog offered every kind of support I needed. For their constant guidance, encouragement, and advice drawn from their own earlier experience completing dissertations, and for their love I am ever so grateful. Verna, in particular, put in countless hours of editorial assistance that made this work much better than it otherwise would have been. And, of course I owe my greatest debt of gratitude to my wife and dear friend, Yves Marie Augustine Rho, who inspired my first interest in Haiti and encouraged me to learn more about Haitians in the United States. Through her approach to her own work, whether in film, journalism, or education, Yves has taught me about determination. And her faithful support while I completed this project, particularly after the arrival of our son, Justice, was a lesson in generosity and love. For this too, I am ever so grateful. ix Contents Introduction 1 Chapter 1 Haitian Exiles in New York: the Early Years, 1957-1973 9 Chapter 2 The Refugee Crisis and the Formation of Haitian Miami, 1973-1980 67 Chapter 3 Building the Opposition, Uprooting the Dictator Resistance and Revolution in New York, Miami, and Haiti, 1980-1986 127 Chapter 4 A Growing People’s Movement, 1987-1989 192 Chapter 5 The Tipping Point, 1990-1991 244 Chapter 6 Defending Democracy Fighting to Reverse the Coup and Protect the Refugees, 1991-1994 299 Conclusion 380 Bibliography 389 x List of Tables Table 1. Cutting the Monkey’s Tail of Duvalierism . 180 1 Introduction This dissertation examines the origins and the evolution of political activism among Haitians in the United States. It traces the efforts of Haitian exiles, refugees, and community organizers to build bridges connecting activists in the Haitian communities of New York and Miami and linking the US-based activists to the grassroots activists and organizations in Haiti. It also charts the evolution of this trans-regional and transnational activism from its origins in the anti-Duvalier exile community of New York in the late 1950s to the defeat of the coup that returned Haitian President Jean-Bertrand Aristide to Haiti in 1994.