Striking a Balance between Inclusion and Exclusion in Competitive Sport Miss Seema Patel A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of Nottingham Trent University for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. April 2012 Striking a Balance between Inclusion and Exclusion in Competitive Sport COPYRIGHT STATEMENT This work is the intellectual property of the author, Miss Seema Patel. You may copy up to 5% of this work for private study, or personal, non-commercial research. Any re-use of the information contained within this document should be fully referenced, quoting the author, title, university, degree level and pagination. Queries or requests for any other use, or if a more substantial copy is required, should be directed in the owner(s) of the Intellectual Property Rights. © Miss Seema Patel Page 1 Striking a Balance between Inclusion and Exclusion in Competitive Sport TABLE OF CONTENTS COPYRIGHT STATEMENT.......................................................................................................... 1 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ............................................................................................... 5 LIST OF CASES AND STATUTES............................................................................................... 6 ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. 10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................... 11 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 12 Context ................................................................................................................................... 12 Aims and Objectives .............................................................................................................. 13 Research Questions ................................................................................................................ 14 Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 16 Significance of Research ........................................................................................................ 21 Limitations ............................................................................................................................. 23 Ethical Considerations............................................................................................................ 24 PART I: KEY CONCEPTS ........................................................................................................... 25 Chapter 1: Inclusion and Exclusion ........................................................................................... 26 Inclusion and Exclusion in Human Behaviour ....................................................................... 26 Human Differences ................................................................................................................ 30 Categorisation and Stereotypes .............................................................................................. 38 Summary ................................................................................................................................ 42 Chapter 2: Physical and Non Physical Differences in Sport ..................................................... 44 Sex .......................................................................................................................................... 45 Gender .................................................................................................................................... 49 Disability ................................................................................................................................ 50 Race ........................................................................................................................................ 53 Summary ................................................................................................................................ 58 Chapter 3: Constructing Sport Specific Concepts ..................................................................... 59 Sporting Exclusion ................................................................................................................. 59 Sporting Inclusion .................................................................................................................. 66 Summary ................................................................................................................................ 70 Chapter 4: The Regulation of Inclusion and Exclusion ............................................................ 71 Policy Measures ..................................................................................................................... 73 Law and Equality Measures ................................................................................................... 76 Sport Regulation Measures .................................................................................................... 91 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 110 Page 2 © Miss Seema Patel Striking a Balance between Inclusion and Exclusion in Competitive Sport Part I Overview ........................................................................................................................ 112 PART II: CURRENT REGULATORY APPROACHES TO INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION IN SPORT ................................................................................................................................... 115 Chapter 6: Sex .......................................................................................................................... 116 Ski Jumping .......................................................................................................................... 119 Running ................................................................................................................................ 124 Golf....................................................................................................................................... 127 Boxing .................................................................................................................................. 129 Sport Exemption Clauses ..................................................................................................... 133 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 153 Chapter 7: Gender .................................................................................................................... 156 Sex Testing in Sport ............................................................................................................. 156 Intersex ................................................................................................................................. 161 Transgender .......................................................................................................................... 172 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 188 Chapter 8: Disability ................................................................................................................ 191 Oscar Pistorius...................................................................................................................... 193 Casey Martin ........................................................................................................................ 203 Fundamental Alteration Approach ....................................................................................... 209 The Use of Assisted Devices in Sport .................................................................................. 214 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 219 Chapter 9: Race ........................................................................................................................ 223 Overt Practices: racial abuse ................................................................................................ 225 Covert practices: over-represented or under-represented? ................................................... 232 Clashes between Sport and Religion .................................................................................... 241 English Only Speaking Rules in Sport ................................................................................. 247 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 249 Part II Overview ....................................................................................................................... 252 PART III: STRIKING THE BALANCE .................................................................................... 254 Chapter 10: Exploring Key Themes ........................................................................................ 255 Analysis of the Sports Rules/Practices Concerning Inclusion and Exclusion