UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA CRUZ KNOWLEDGE, NATURE, AND NATIONALISM: THE UPPER KARNALI DAM IN NEPAL A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in SOCIOLOGY by Christopher J. Butler June 2016 The dissertation of Christopher J. Butler is approved: ____________________________________ Professor Ben Crow (chair) ____________________________________ Professor Deborah Gould ____________________________________ Professor Andrew Mathews ______________________ Tyrus Miller Vice Provost and Dean of Graduate Studies © Copyright by Christopher J. Butler 2016 All Rights Reserved Table of Contents Commonly Used Abbreviations ................................................................................................. vi List of Figures and Tables ......................................................................................................... vii Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... ix Dedication .................................................................................................................................. x Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... x Introduction – Dams, Development and Water Politics in Nepal .............................................. 1 1. Big Dams: Rise, Fall, Rise, Critiques ................................................................................ 6 World Commission on Dams .............................................................................................. 8 Controlling the View on the Ground ................................................................................ 11 2. Making the State with Dams ........................................................................................ 12 Official Knowledge............................................................................................................ 18 Governmentality .............................................................................................................. 21 3. Re-envisioning Water ................................................................................................... 24 Water Scales to Waterscapes ........................................................................................... 25 Hydrosocial Futures.......................................................................................................... 28 4. Current issues in hydropower development in Nepal .................................................... 30 5. Hydro Proprioception.................................................................................................... 37 Chapter 1: “The Jewel in the Crown”: a Critical History of the Upper Karnali Hydropower Site ................................................................................................................................................ 44 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 45 2. Background .................................................................................................................. 48 3. Approach and Method .................................................................................................. 56 4. Configuring Upper Karnali ............................................................................................ 57 Justifying Upper Karnali .................................................................................................... 66 5. Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 79 iii Chapter 2: Capital Hydro Visions in Nepal ............................................................................... 80 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 80 2. Hydropower and Neoliberalism ...................................................................................... 86 Neoliberalism(?) ................................................................................................................... 87 Water and Neoliberalism ...................................................................................................... 92 Hydropower and Discourse ................................................................................................... 95 3. Methods .......................................................................................................................... 98 4. Data and Themes .......................................................................................................... 102 Hydropower as destiny ....................................................................................................... 102 Hydropower as development .............................................................................................. 106 Performing the neoliberal ................................................................................................... 108 5. Discussion – What Will Become of Water? ................................................................... 110 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 114 Chapter 3 – Conspiracy and Nationhood and India ............................................................... 116 1. Introduction – Forested Negotiations ......................................................................... 116 2. Whence Conspiracy Theories? And Why? ................................................................... 132 3. Border Disputes, Rebellion, and King Birendra ........................................................... 137 Maoist rebellion and peace process ............................................................................... 138 King’s assassination ........................................................................................................ 139 4. River Agreements and Treaties between India and Nepal .......................................... 141 5. Ganges Basin Strategic Assessment ........................................................................... 148 6. Discussion ................................................................................................................... 153 Chapter 4 – Lives in Suspension ............................................................................................ 158 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 158 2. Is this resistance? What does “resistance” actually tell us?........................................ 163 iv 3. Ideology and Hegemony ............................................................................................ 169 4. Data ............................................................................................................................ 179 5. Discussion -- The Tyranny of Waiting, Lives in Suspension, and Subduction ............... 189 Conclusion – Wherefore Upper Karnali? ............................................................................... 207 Afterword – For Future Consideration ................................................................................ 217 Appendix A – Development Timeline of the Upper Karnali Hydroelectric Project ............... 220 WORKS CITED ........................................................................................................................ 227 v Commonly Used Abbreviations ADB Asian Development Bank CPN(M) Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) - radical splinter party that broke off from UCPN(M) in 2011 CPN(UML) Communist Party of Nepal (United Marxist-Leninist) IPPAN Independent Power Producers Association of Nepal NC Nepali Congress Party NEA Nepal Electricity Authority UCPN(M) Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) - the original Maoist party which initiated the civil rebellion in 1996; they join the government as a formal political party in 2007 UKH Upper Karnali Hydroelectric Project WB World Bank vi List of Figures and Tables Introduction Figure 1 (page 41): A diagram of the various populations engaged in debates over the Upper Karnali Hydroelectric Project. Chapter 1 Figure 2 (page 50): A map of the large-sized hydropower projects in Nepal as of 2014. The green blocks indicate projects already completed. The white blocks are currently planned for construction. Figure 3 (page 51): The Upper Karnali Hydroelectric Project Site, including the proposed dam site, power house, and tunnel. Figure 4 (page 63): 2014 peak load and energy need predictions from Himalayan Power Consultants compared with actual reported figures for 2014. Chapter 4 Table 1 (page 160): Survey question: What was your opinion about the attack on the GMR buildings? Table 2 (page 180): Survey question: How will the dam affect this area? Table 3 (page 181): Survey question: How will the dam affect the water? Table 4 (page 181): Survey question: When will construction on the dam begin? Table 5 (page 187): Survey question: Who should be responsible for the river and water? Table 6 (Page 187): Survey question: Who should be responsible for compensation? Table 7 (page 193): Survey question: Where do you get your information about the dam? vii Table 8