The Moving Finger: A Rhetorical, Grammatological and Afrinographic Exploration of Nsibidi in Nigeria and Cameroon A dissertation presented to the faculty of the Scripps College of Communication of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Kevin Hales August 2015 © 2015 Kevin Hales. All Rights Reserved. This dissertation titled The Moving Finger: A Rhetorical, Grammatological and Afrinographic Exploration of Nsibidi in Nigeria and Cameroon by KEVIN HALES has been approved for the School of Communication Studies and the Scripps College of Communication by John W. Smith Associate Professor of Communication Studies Scott Titsworth Dean, Scripps College of Communication ii ABSTRACT HALES, KEVIN, Ph.D., August 2015, Communication Studies The Moving Finger: A Rhetorical, Grammatological and Afrinographic Exploration of Nsibidi in Nigeria and Cameroon Director of Dissertation: John W. Smith The debate involving the origins, nature and utilization of Nsibidi has raged since the earliest years of the twentieth century. Western scholars in the fields of archeology, anthropology, linguistics and other areas of study have offered differing insights to the collective body of information now known as Nsibidi Studies. Three central questions, using communication studies as a disciplinary frame, allowed me to probe deeply into Nsibidi to see if it could be reframed and reimagined as visual rhetoric, visual nommo and actual writing. I first wanted to know what is Nsibidi? Next, how does this system work? Lastly, I wanted to discern who created and used Nsibidi? It was at this point that I had to also investigate so-called African secret societies. Nsibidi is a system consisting mainly of gestures, tattoos, symbols, signs and other markings. It is possible that Nsibidi is one of the oldest organized systems of nonverbal human communication, dating back to at least 2000 C.E. As such, I believe it is time to explore in far more detail the ways in which communication studies scholarship can explore its rhetorical and grammatological potential. I spent three months in southeast Nigeria and southwestern Cameroon conducting fieldwork, which includes my investiture into the ancient West Africa so-called secret society known as Ekpe/Mgbe. My method of exploration was initially ethnography, but I ultimately utilized a iii significantly newer, fresher and less stigmatized approach called Afronography. I prefer spelling this method as Afrinography. I ultimately concluded that Nsibidi can be understood as visual rhetoric and visual nommo. Whether or not the system is truly actual writing as defined by Western scholarship is debatable. Further examination is possible on all three issues. iv DEDICATION To all Afrikan Ancestors, both known and unknown. Be you Continental, Caribbean, Carolina or carried elsewhere, you suffered through the Great Maafa for me. Know that I remember you, I mourn you, I thank you and I love you. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I want to thank all of the people who made this dissertation possible. I begin with my dear mother, Pearl Green Hales. Although she rests with the Sacred Ancestors, I still think about her constantly. Next would be my maternal grandfather Ezekiel Green; great uncle Jerry Hales and his wonderful wife Ann Hales; Gullah/Geechee cousins Elizabeth German and Sadie-Bell Hales. Each was ever supportive of me. Jerry Hales was in many ways my very first male role model. At Ohio University I will always be indebted to the world’s greatest dissertation committee. It consisted of Yea-Wen Chen, Assan Sarr, Bill Rawlins and J.W. Smith. They will never fully understand how much I respect and appreciate all of their efforts on my behalf. Next, I want thank Regina Smith, Caroline Lewis, Ben Bates, Jerry Miller, Valerie K. Miller, Scott Titsworth and Sarah Pemberton. My time in Athens was made easier by their positive energy and assistance. Each morning during my first year in Athens, I would walk past the office of Dr. Lewis and she would always inquire about how I was adjusting to my new life. At historic Fisk University, I must thank the people who have been my de facto parents since my undergraduate days on that great campus Reavis L. Mitchell and his wife Patricia Walker Mitchell. Both have acted as my parents. I love you both! No Fulbright or NEH awards would have ever been possible without their love, guidance and encouragement over the years. Along these same lines, I thank Gladys Truss and Derrick Dowell, my other Fisk parents. Without these two giving me the opportunity to leave the Bronx, my life would have undoubtedly taken a distinctly different path. All of my Geechee Kunda Family, with Jim and Pat Bacote, Greg O. Grant, Vernon Gill and Jamal Toure at the top of the list, must be mentioned. It was Jim and Pat vi who served as my ultimate inspiration for the Ph.D. They have fought hard to make Geechee Kunda “America’s Gullah/Geechee Center.” Greg I cannot thank enough because he made sure I was in the Lowcountry by early May. Jamal was the first person in Chatham County to believe in my vision for a Gullah/Geechee research center located in the Corridor. I also cannot ever thank Queen Quet and her Gullah/Geechee Sea Island Coalition sufficiently. Queen Quet is a true champion of African American Lowcountry people. No one person has done more internationally to serve the Gullah/Geechee cause than Queen Quet. I must give a very special thank you to Brenda Allen. We first met back in 2011 and she offered to act as a mentor in the field of communication. I could not have foreseen just how critical a role she would play in coming years. Without Brenda’s truly generous financial support, my fieldwork in West Africa during 2014-15 would not have been possible. Speaking of Nigeria, I must thank David Ebio Kobo, Florence Umo, Jerry Benson, Ador Carol, Joel “Joe” King, Obong Ekpe Epenyong Bassey, Peace Osagu, Okon Etim Efanga, Chief Okpokam, Etok Jumbo, Mfon Jumbo, Happiness Jumbo, Ben Opeh Itang, Edim Itakpo, Lawrence Etim, Effanga Etim, Nsa Henshaw, Chief Inyang Henshaw, Paul Nya, Chief and Curator Sylvanus “Orlando” Ekoh Akong, Prince Anthony A. Akong, Itoro Akpan, Engineer Bassey E. Bassey, Ndidem Thomas Ika Ika Oqua, Prince Oqua Etim Ika Oqua (Esi Njo), the Nigerian National Museum, the Nigerian Cultural Center in Calabar, CBAAC and Daniel Yusuf for all of their invaluable assistance during my three months in Nigeria. A special thank you goes to my brothers, vii Sunday S. Adaka, Patrick Osagu, Philip Fotokun, Arikpo Gabriel, Okamoko B. Edet, Lebo Imoh and Etok Jumbo. I also must mention J.W. and Regina Smith again. JW has been an advisor, mentor, brother, friend and confidant over the past four years. I will sorely miss having my annual Thanksgiving meal at their home. No doctoral student could ever hope for better souls to lead them to the Ph.D. Promised Land. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Dedication ........................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgments............................................................................................................. vii List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... x Chapter 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2. Literature Review and Historical Context ......................................................... 7 Chapter 3. Methods: Of Distance and Intimacy: Afrinography ........................................ 86 Chapter 4. Discoveries and Observations from Cross River State……..........................113 Chapter 5. Conclusions, Limitations and Future Research………………………..…...179 References ....................................................................................................................... 196 ix LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1. This image is of the Nsibidi symbol for the human hand. …………………15 Figure 2. Map of southern Nigeria and Cameroon. ………………………………..…38 Figure 3. Map of Cross River State. ………………………………………………….39 Figure 4. Map of all 36 Nigerian states. ………………………………………………39 Figure 5. Photo of an osam taken in Cross River State, Nigeria. …………………….118 Figure 6. Photo of the outside signage from Efe Ekpe Atu at Efut Ekondo, in Calabar South, Nigeria. …………………………………………………………………………118 Figure 7. Photo of Osam Mgbe Mfam Akin Ayen taken at different angle in Cross River State, Nigeria. ………………………………………………………………………………………….119 Figure 8. Photo of Mgbe sign at Mfam Akin Ayen………..…………………………119 Figure 9. Photo of me minutes after finishing the first stage of the Ekpe initiation process in Calabar, Nigeria. …………………………………………………………...122 Figure 10. Photo of me while undergoing the opening of an Ekpe initiation process in Calabar, Nigeria. …………………………………………………………………………………………122 Figure 11. Photo of me at the opening of an Ekpe initiation process in Calabar, Nigeria. Sitting next to fellow Ekpe initiate and participant Okamoko Edet. …………………………………………………………………………………………122 Figure 12. Photo of the sacred oboti leaf in water. This is a typical item used during an Ekpe initiation. ………………………………………………………..127 Figure 13. Photo of an Ekpe masked spirit. ……………………………………127 Figure 14. Photo of an Ekpe masked spirit. …………………………………………..128 Figure