UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA CRUZ NEW BATTLEGROUNDS OVER SCIENCE, RISK, AND ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE: FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CLEANUP OF MILITARY SUPERFUND SITES A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES by Jennifer Liss Ohayon September 2015 The Dissertation of Jennifer Liss Ohayon is approved: ____________________________________ Professor Gregory S. Gilbert, chair ____________________________________ Professor Ravi Rajan ____________________________________ Professor Zdravka Tzankova ____________________________________ Professor Jenny E. Reardon _____________________________ Tyrus Miller Vice Provost and Dean of Graduate Studies Copyright © by Jennifer Liss Ohayon 2015 Table of Contents Table of Contents ........................................................................................................ iii List of Figures ............................................................................................................. ix List of Tables ................................................................................................................ x Abstract ...................................................................................................................... xii Dedication .................................................................................................................. xiv Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... xv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1 1.1. General description of the problem .................................................................. 1 1.2. The multiple actors and factors influencing cleanup .................................... 13 1.3. Environmental Justice and military Superfund cleanups ............................ 21 1.4. Structure of Dissertation .................................................................................. 24 1.5. Work Cited (Chapter 1) ................................................................................... 30 CHAPTER 2: FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PACE OF ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION AT SUPERFUND MILITARY SITES ................. 34 2.1. Abstract ............................................................................................................. 34 2.2. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 35 2.3. An overview of potential factors influencing program implementation for military Superfund sites ................................................................................... 38 2.3.1. A stage-based approach ............................................................................. 42 iii 2.3.2. Expectations for relationship between factors and the time to complete a stage ........................................................................................ 46 2.4. Study context and methods .............................................................................. 51 2.4.1. Overview of remedial stages ..................................................................... 51 2.4.2. Variable selection ...................................................................................... 54 2.5. Results ................................................................................................................ 66 2.5.1. For Listing-RI/FS Stage ............................................................................ 68 2.5.2. Listing-First Cleanup stage........................................................................ 71 2.5.3. Listing-Final Remedy Selected stage ........................................................ 74 2.5.4. Listing to Construction Complete Stage .................................................... 77 2.5.5. Relationships between variables ................................................................ 81 2.6. Discussion .......................................................................................................... 85 2.7. Acknowledgements - Chapter 2 ....................................................................... 94 2.8. Work Cited - Chapter 2 ................................................................................... 95 2.9. Appendices for Chapter 2 ................................................................................ 99 CHAPTER 3: ISLAND UNDER FIRE: IMPLICATIONS FOR INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE PRINCIPLES INTO SUPERFUND POLICY IN VIEQUES, PUERTO RICO. ....................................... 110 3.1. Chapter 3 - Abstract ....................................................................................... 110 3.2. Introduction .................................................................................................... 111 3.3. Island under fire: the military in Vieques .................................................... 118 3.4. A note on methodology ................................................................................... 131 3.5. Addressing Environmental Justice under Superfund Policy ...................... 133 iv 3.5.1. Environmental justice as equated with technological progress ............... 133 3.5.2. Addressing past health exposures ............................................................ 136 3.5.3. Addressing cumulative risk exposures .................................................... 138 3.6. Federal versus grassroots interpretations of environmental justice .......... 142 3.7. Transferring Environmental Justice into Public Participation Efforts ..... 148 3.7.1. RAB Attendance ...................................................................................... 149 3.7.2. Reasons for not participating ................................................................... 151 3.7.3. Restriction of RABs to technical issues .................................................. 155 3.8. Addressing Temporality and Justice in Science: Insufficient Knowledge on Past Health Exposures .............................................................................. 158 3.8.1. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry and Data Poverty on Usage and Exposures ............................................................ 158 3.8.2. Difficulties in establishing excess risk: The issue with small and mobile populations .................................................................................. 174 3.9. Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 180 3.10. Work Cited - Chapter 3 ................................................................................. 182 CHAPTER 4: ADDRESSING ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS AND MOBILIZING DEMOCRACY? POLICY ON PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN U.S. MILITARY SUPERFUND SITES .................................................... 188 4.1. Abstract ........................................................................................................... 188 4.2. Military contamination .................................................................................. 190 4.3. Environmental regulation of military lands ................................................. 191 4.4. Policy surrounding public participation in military superfund sites ......... 193 v 4.5. Case studies and methods .............................................................................. 197 4.5.1. Hunters Point Naval Shipyard ................................................................. 200 4.5.2. Fort Ord ................................................................................................... 203 4.6. Representation in non-deliberative forums .................................................. 205 4.7. Issues with the implementation of RABs ...................................................... 210 4.8. Dysfunctional RABs: The structure and function of citizen advisory boards .............................................................................................................. 212 4.8.1. Authority of the Boards ........................................................................... 213 4.8.2. RAB Accountability ................................................................................ 217 4.9. Addressing a Federal Mandate for Public Participation, Redressing Local Issues? .............................................................................................................. 222 4.10. Distrust and contestation ............................................................................... 229 4.11. Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 234 4.12. Acknowledgements - Chapter 4 ..................................................................... 236 4.13. Work Cited - Chapter 4 ................................................................................. 237 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................. 242 5.1. Summary of Research Findings .................................................................... 242 5.2. Recommendations ........................................................................................... 246 5.2.1. Recommendation 1: Implement peer-reviewed evaluations of citizen advisory boards. ....................................................................................... 246 5.2.2. Recommendation 2: Implement mechanisms that formally incorporate