CONTESTING HEGEMONY: CIVIL SOCIETY AND THE STRUGGLE FOR SOCIAL CHANGE IN ZIMBABWE, 2000 – 2008 By CORNELIAS NCUBE A thesis submitted to The University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY International Development Department School of Government and Society The University of Birmingham September 2010 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Abstract This thesis employs Gramsci’s language of hegemony in order, firstly, to explore the role of civil society in legitimating and resisting state hegemony, and secondly, to examine the sociological basis of counter-hegemonic politics in post-2000 Zimbabwe. The thesis arose out of a critique of reductionist approaches in the theorising and study of changing state-society relations in post-2000 Zimbabwe that identifies civil society exclusively with opposition politics and excludes organisations aligned to the ruling party, and therefore resulting in functionalist discussions that view civil society as necessarily anti-state. This thesis demonstrates however that a dense hegemonic civil society also exists and it is organically aligned to ZANU-PF in its advocacy for a social change based on a radical transformed terrain of the relations of social forces of production, vis-à-vis land redistribution, albeit implementing this vision through coercive violence, persuasive but exclusionary discourses of radical nationalism, Afro-radicalism and nativism. Confronting it, is an equally militant counter-hegemonic civil society aligned to the MDC, and it deploys the discourses of constitutionalism and human rights to resist state hegemony and to unravel the violent nature of ZANU-PF’s nationalist project, but in ways devoid of a serious critique of the structural inequalities of a post-independent Zimbabwe. Acknowledgements In January 2005, I submitted an essay in a module entitled the Political Economy of Poverty Reduction and Development that was being convened by Dr. Heather Marquette. At the end of her thought provoking comments, in response to the arguments I had raised in the paper, she ended with a short sentence: ‘Ever consider a PhD?’ I had flirted with the idea but had not taken it seriously. I did consider it after further discussions with Dr Heather Marquette, in her official capacity as my academic mentor and masters dissertation supervisor. Her short comment was to be followed by more critical and invaluable comments, advice and support as I went through the tortuous task of writing this thesis. Throughout my studies she was more that a PhD supervisor: she was a mother to me, a sister, a colleague and a friend. Her own academic and professional achievements inspired and assured me that I was in the safe hands. Thank you very much, Heather. A colleague told me, in a light-hearted manner that Professor Paul Jackson, the Head of the School of Government and Society at the University of Birmingham is a busy man but when he gives a suggestion or comments about your work, open your ears, think outside the ‘box’ and act. He was my co-supervisor and his advice and support I am also forever grateful. This thesis would not have seen day light, was it not for the 50 percent funding from the University of Birmingham’s International Development Department. The funding bursary lessened the burden on me to fund the rest of the programme. The department also assisted me with transport expenses to and from Zimbabwe for my fieldwork. I am forever grateful. In the Department of International Development, I would also like to thank all academic staff members and PhD colleagues who attended the annual departmental seminars and commented on my work. It was scary but worth it. Thanks Chipiliro Kalebe- Nyamongo (Malawi), Nyasha Makoni-Mazango (Zimbabwe), Sunday Angoma Okello (Sweden/Uganda), Audrey Nganwa (UK/Uganda), Dr. Molefe B. Phirinyane (Botswana), Dr. Suleman Akura Balarabe (Nigeria), and many more, for the informal discussions that we always had in our small offices. I must also thank all of the people who agreed to be interviewed during the political tense situation in Zimbabwe in 2008. Special thanks to NANGO secretariat and in particular to the Director Mr Cephas Zinhuwe, Programmes Director Mr Bob Muchabaiwa and Advocacy and Public Policy Manager Mr Fambai Ngirande for giving me the opportunity to be an intern whilst carrying out my field work. I am grateful with the assistance that you gave me to contact some of my respondents and to the attend NANGO workshops and board meetings from which I got lots of insight and information about civil society in Zimbabwe. Thanks also go to my aunt in Harare, Ms Irene Mudzengi who accommodated me during the duration of my field work and many friends who assisted me to know the various ‘corners’ of the black market where I sourced the scarce and expensive basic commodities like sugar, bread, maize mealie meal, cooking oil, etc!!! Finally, I would like to thank my family for always being there for me with their love and support. My wife, Happy Ncube worked so tirelessly to support me and our daughter, both financially and emotionally. It was hard, but even when the ‘cats slept on the fireplace’, you gave me strength and hope that ‘this cup will pass’. In so many ways, this is also your achievement. Nonqaba, I hope one day you will look at this thesis with a mature mind and be inspired towards more or less the same goal. Thanks also to my sister Saliwe Mudzengi for her understanding and support, both financially and emotionally. Last but not least, I would like to thank my relatives (too many to list), and friends for believing in me and supporting my family all the way through. Ndobokela gamu lose lakaKhupe iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements................................................................................................................................. III List of abbreviations ............................................................................................................................... VII List of figures and tables ......................................................................................................................... XI Chapter 1: Introduction and methodology .......................................................................................... 1 1.1 The problem and its theoretical context ....................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Aims and objectives of the study ........................................................................................... 5 1.1.2 Research questions ............................................................................................................... 7 1.1.3 Scope of the study ................................................................................................................. 8 1.2 Methodology .............................................................................................................................. 10 1.2.1 Methodological paradigms and approaches ........................................................................ 11 1.2.2 Research design and sampling ............................................................................................ 18 1.2.3 Data collection: methods and processes ............................................................................. 28 1.2.3.1 Interviews ................................................................................................................... 29 1.2.3.2 Documentation ........................................................................................................... 31 1.2.3.3 Observation ............................................................................................................... 33 1.2.3.4 ‘In the field’: implementation and reflections .............................................................. 35 1.2.3.5 ‘Off the field’: the framework for data analysis ........................................................... 41 1.3 Structure of the thesis ................................................................................................................ 43 Chapter 2: Hegemony, civil society and social change in theory ................................................... 44 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 44 2.2 Contested histories of civil society ............................................................................................. 45 2.2.1 Antonio Gramsci .................................................................................................................. 52 2.2.1.1 Hegemony ................................................................................................................. 54 2.2.1.2 Gramsci’s civil society ................................................................................................ 59 2.2.1.3 Limitations of Gramscian dialectics ...........................................................................