Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Dissertations Graduate College 12-2002 Perspectives on Power: John F. Kennedy and U.S.-Middle East Relations April R. Summitt Western Michigan University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations Part of the Military History Commons, Near and Middle Eastern Studies Commons, and the United States History Commons Recommended Citation Summitt, April R., "Perspectives on Power: John F. Kennedy and U.S.-Middle East Relations" (2002). Dissertations. 1307. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/1307 This Dissertation-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. PERSPECTIVES ON POWER: JOHN F. KENNEDY AND U.S. -MIDDLE EAST RELATIONS by April R. Summitt A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of The Graduate College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan December 2002 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PERSPECTIVES ON POWER: JOHN F. KENNEDY AND U.S.-MIDDLE EAST RELATIONS April R. Summitt, Ph.D. Western Michigan University, 2002 A study of President John F. Kennedy’s policy toward the Middle East illustrates the agency and unexpected power wielded by so-called “third world” countries during the Cold War era. In spite of careful planning in Washington, Middle East leaders often manipulated and directed Kennedy’s approach to the region. Regional actors used American fears of Communism to gain increased financial aid, military support, and influence in the United Nations. Although seeming to submit to Western pressures in exchange for such support, these leaders played both superpowers against each other and shaped policy according to local needs. While this relationship meant a degree of dependency upon the United States, it also brought the ability to wield influence beyond their actual economic and military strength. During this period, the American approach to the region shifted, not so much because of Kennedy’s efforts to change it, but because of the actions of Middle East players. Israel persuaded Kennedy to sell it missiles, beginning a gradual process of becoming an arsenal for Israel. The Shah of Iran managed to persuade the United States that he was a reformer, thus assuring a steady flow of dollars. Eventually, the support of royalist Arab regimes vis-a-vis more radical ones further indicted the United States as an enemy of Arab nationalism. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. 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Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3080108 UMI’ UMI Microform 3080108 Copyright 2003 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Copyright by April R. Summitt 2002 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my committee members, Dr. Ross Gregory, Dr. Ronald Davis, and Dr. Howard Dooley of Western Michigan University, and Dr. James Goode of Grand Valley State University, for all the guidance they gave me as I researched and Wrote this dissertation. I would also like to give a special thanks to my friends and family, without whose love and understanding I would never have succeeded. Finally, I thank my colleagues in the Department of History and Political Science at Andrews University, Berrien Springs, Michigan, for their constant and on-going support. April R. Summitt u Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 1 II. LEGACIES OF THE PAST........................................................................................ 6 Truman and the Middle East.................................................................................. 7 The Eisenhower Doctrine ...................................................................................... 17 III. PILLARS OF STABILITY............................................................................................. 30 Kennedy and Economic Development ................................................................ 32 Israel and its Nuclear Plant.................................................................................... 38 Saudi Arabia and Oil.............................................................................................. 49 King Hussein of Jordan.......................................................................................... 55 Iran and the Shah .................................................................................................... 58 IV. WOOING THE NEUTRALS......................................................................................... 66 Aid to Nasser........................................................................................................... 66 Breakup of the U.A.R............................................................................................ 72 Independent Syria ................................................................................................... 76 Nationalism in Iraq ................................................................................................. 79 V. THE PALESTINE REFUGEE ISSUE......................................................................... 88 The Johnson Mission .............................................................................................. 88 Roadblocks to Settlement ...................................................................................... 95 The HAWK Connection ....................................................................................... 100 iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table of Contents — Continued CHAPTER Fixing the Blame .................................................................................................... 108 VI. REWARDING THE FAITHFUL............................................................................... 116 The White Revolution in Iran............................................................................. 116 Reassurance to Lebanon...................................................................................... 125 Pressure on Kuwait............................................................................................... 130 Reforming Saudi Arabia and Jordan................................................................. 132 VII. A TIGHTROPE OVER WATER.............................................................................. 137 The Hydrography .................................................................................................. 137 Dividing the Waters ............................................................................................. 139 The Johnston Plan ................................................................................................ 141 The War Over the Sea ......................................................................................... 147 VIII. THE TIGHTROPE BREAKS.................................................................................... 155 The High Point of Rapprochement ................................................................... 155 Nuclear Weapons and Disarmament................................................................. 160 Civil War in Yemen.............................. 163 Royal Regimes and the Yemeni Conflict ........................................................ 168 The British and Yemen ......................................................................................