Appendix 1 Women’s Military Participation in the UK, Germany and France: Statistical Data Percentage of female soldiers in the UK, Germany and France since 1997 ‘97 ‘98 ‘99 ‘00 ‘01 ‘02 ‘03 ‘04 ‘05 ‘06 ‘07 ‘08 ‘09 ‘10 France 7.7 7.8 8.3 9.1 10.1 11.4 12.5 13.0 13.9 13.9 14.3 14.6 15.0 15.15 Germany 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 3.0 3.9 4.7 5.5 6.1 6.8 7.6 8.3 8.7 9.1 UK 6.4 6.8 7.0 7.3 7.6 7.8 8.1 8.5 8.7 9.0 9.1 9.3 9.5 9.7 111 112 Appendix 1 Percentage of women in the British armed forces according to grade and force in 2010 Army Navy RAF Officers 11.3 9.7 15.4 NCOs 5.5 7.1 8.5 Other ranks 7.4 11.5 15.4 Percentage of women in the German armed forces according to grade and force in 2010 Heer Deutsche Marine Luftwaffe SKB1 Officers 2.2 6.0 2.8 5.0 NCOs 6.0 8.3 6.6 8.2 Other ranks 5.1 6.4 7.5 9.6 Percentage of women in the French armed forces according to grade and force in 2010 Armée de terre Marine nationale Armée de l’air Officers 8.24 11.22 10.99 NCOs 12.77 12.14 17.94 Other ranks 11.04 23.39 48.48 Note: Data concerning the British Armed Forces was provided by the Defence Analytical Services and Advice (DASA). Data concerning the French Armed Forces was provided by the Secrétariat général pour l’administration (SGA). Data concerning the German Armed Forces was provided by the Bundesministerium der Verteidigung. Many thanks to each of my correspondents for their input. Appendix 2 Women’s Military Participation in the UK, Germany and France: Historical Perspectives A British short history (1945–present) The WRAC (Women’s Royal Army Corps) was created in 1949 (on the basis of the Auxiliary Territorial Service – ATS – originally set up in 1938). The WRAF (Women’s Royal Air Force) was also established in this year, and the WRNS (Women’s Royal Naval Service) was re- created as a permanent unit in 1939 following a model that was initially put in place in 1917. These services were strictly unisex and non- combatant (i.e. they did not involve any training with arms). In 1981, however, the government announced that small calibre arms training would be provided within these services, at least with a view to self- defence. During the 1990s, a fuller integration of women within the three forces was initiated. The WRAC was integrated into the Army in April 1992, the WRNS joined the Navy in November 1993, and the WRAF was merged into the regular Royal Air Force in April 1994 (see NATO, 2001).1 Simultaneously, the number of posts that were open to women started to grow. For example, women managed to become pilots and navigators in the Air Force in 1989,2 and they gained the authorisation to embark on ships in the Navy in 1994.3 Big changes were introduced in the Army from October 1997, when the then Secretary of State for Defence, Lord George Robertson of Port Elen announced that women could serve in the Royal Artillery and the Royal Engineers Corps from April 1998, rais- ing the number of positions open to them from 47 to 70 per cent. The Household Cavalry and Royal Armoured Corps, as well as the Infantry, are still closed to women. They can serve in all positions in the Royal Navy and the Air Force except the Royal Marines General Service and the RAF Regiments. Parallel to the 2010 Women in Combat review, the ban on women’s presence in submarines (which rested on medical reasons) was reviewed and waived. They can now also serve as mine-clearance divers. 113 114 Appendix 2 A German short history (1945–present) During the Second World War, ‘around 450 000 women were recruited in the Wehrmacht Assistance Corps (Wehrmachthelferinnenkorps), and tens of thou- sands were assigned to combat positions’ (Kümmel, 2005, p. 22). After the events, article 12a of the German Constitution (1949) provided that women shall not ‘render service involving the use of arms’ (see Grundgesetz). This provision retained validity until the ruling of the European Court of Justice in 2000 in the Tanja Kreil case (C- 285/98), which has had great repercus- sions on women’s military participation in Germany. In any case, women had started to be recruited from the mid-1970s in the medical services. On 1 October 1975, five female medical doctors enlisted for the first time, and the number of female medical officers (Sanitätsoffiziere) reached 29 by the end of that year. In 1988, female medical officers had the opportunity to undertake all duties attached to their position (which was not the case until then), such as the job of a ‘teacher officer’ (Lehroffizier) at the medical military acad- emy (see BdWV, 2004, p. 1). In this same year, female medical officers were required to undertake training in the arms drill (though only for one type of arms) so as to ensure at least the defence of the patient as much as their own.4 On 1 January 1991, women were further allowed to apply for positions as Non- Commissioned Officers as well as troops in the medical services; all positions within the military music service also became open to them. In 1994, the surgeon Verena von Weymarn became the first woman to be pro- moted to the rank of general. By 1997, almost 3,500 women were employed in the medical and military music services. A French short history (1945–present) In France, women gained military status after the Second World War. The first decree (no. 51- 1197) acknowledging the military nature of women’s par- ticipation in the armed forces was passed in October 1951. This decree did not only establish a rank system (which was not equivalent to that of men), but also, more fundamentally, offered the opportunity for women to pursue a career in the institution. From this date on, legislation kept evolving and the number of positions open to women gradually increased. Such exten- sion was effected within a dual legal framework, by which male and female military personnel pursued largely parallel career paths. While the 1972 Law had indeed established statutory equivalence for men and women, a 1973 decree (re- )created separate feminine military corps. The 1975 Military Law (no. 75– 1000) asserted again the principles enounced in the 1972 Law, but it is through ensuing regulation that mixed ranks (for given positions) were in fact put in place from 1976. At the same time, the quota system, which applied to women exclusively, was developed and implemented. Between the end of the 1970s and the period reviewed in Chapter 5, the Air Force, the Navy and the Army pursued their own scheme regarding women’s mili- tary participation, elaborating over the years a composite collection of policy Appendix 2 115 measures. These contrasted strongly with the opportunities open to men and, even more, with the system of compulsory national service applying to them. Provisions applicable to women kept being revised until all restrictions for their recruitment were finally almost all waived in the context of the transi- tion from a conscription to a professional military between 1998 and 2002. Appendix 3 Schematic summary of the orders of worth (polities) Market Industrial Civic Domestic Inspired Opinion Mode of Price, Cost Technical efficiency Collective welfare Esteem, Reputation Grace, Singularity, Renown, Fame evaluation Creativeness (worth) Test Market, Competence, Equality, Solidarity Trustworthiness Passion, Enthusiasm Popularity, Competitiveness Reliability, Audience, Planning Recognition Form of Monetary Measurable: Criteria, Formal, Official Oral, Exemplary, Emotional Semiotic relevant proof Statistics Personally involvements & warranted expression Time frame Short-term, Long-term planned Perennial Customary past Eschatotogical, Vogue, Trend Flexibility future Revolutionary, Visionary moment Source: Boltanski and Thévenot, 1991; adapted from Thévenot, Moody and Lafaye, 2000, p. 241. Notes Introduction 1. According to national reports published by the NATO Committee on Gender Perspectives, available online at http://www.nato.int/cps/en /natolive/topics_50327.htm [accessed 11 January 2011]. 2. According to the data provided by the Statistical Information Analysis Division (SIAD), available online at http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel /CASUALTY/oefdeaths.pdf concerning Operation Enduring Freedom [accessed 1 March 2011] and http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/ CASUALTY/oif- deaths- total.pdf concerning Operation Iraqi Freedom [accessed 1 March 2011]. 3. In this book, the concept of ‘sex distinction’ will be privileged over that of ‘gender’. This is to underline the strictly sociological angle of the present inquiry and avoid some of the confusing connotations that are sometimes attached to the concept of ‘gender’. One of them has to do with an understanding of ‘gender’ as describing subjective experiences and identities, too, beyond social actions and relations. Such under- standing raises questions of psychological import (on the structure of personality and identity formation, for instance) which – it is the view defended here – the sociologist does not need to answer, or even address, strictly speaking, to produce valid sociological analysis. Another one has to do with the opposition of gender as a ‘social’ construct to ‘sex’ as a biological given. Such opposition suggests that human understanding of the body and its workings could be reached outside of representation, hence social representations. Such suggestion remains difficult to accept for a sociologist, who will be inclined to question the idea that represen- tations are not socially mediated.