AN OVERVIEW AND ANALYSIS OF ‘PROTO-SUSQUEHANNOCK’ SITES IN THE UPPER SUSQUEHANNA RIVER VALLEY A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts by Jasmine Nicole Gollup January 2011 © 2011 Jasmine Nicole Gollup ABSTRACT The Upper Susquehanna Valley region is thought to be the homeland of the Susquehannock Indians, historically known to reside in south-central Pennsylvania. The Susquehannock sites in this region, called ‘Proto-Susquehannock’ by many, are understudied and provide nebulous answers to the question of Susquehannock origins. This thesis provides a compilation of Proto-Susquehannock research including information on excavation history, site location, artifact assemblages, and past research on forty-five sites labeled as Proto-Susquehannock. Intended as background research for future Proto-Susquehannock studies, the thesis also delves into definitional problems hindering research in this area, focusing on terms such as protohistoric and Proto-Susquehannock and the pottery variants often associated with the Susquehannocks (Richmond Mills Incised, Proto-Susquehannock, and Schultz Incised) and the lack of consistent and operational definitions associated with each term. The thesis concludes with the statement that additional research is necessary in the Upper Susquehanna River Valley to successfully create a comprehensive history of the Susquehannocks. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Jasmine Gollup was born in Lothian, Maryland, USA. She graduated from Southern Senior High School in 2005 with memberships in the National Honor Society, Tri-M Music Honor Society, and International Thespian Society. She received a dual degree in History and Sociology/Anthropology with a concentration in Archaeology from Elizabethtown College, graduating magna cum laude in 2009. A graduating member of the Elizabethtown College Honors Program, she is also a member of the Alpha Lambda Delta, Phi Alpha Theta, and Lambda Alpha honor societies. During an internship at Historic Londontown and Gardens (Edgewater, Maryland), she discovered a passion for archaeology and historic interpretation, becoming a docent and interpreter at the site and later working at Historic St. Mary’s City, Maryland, as an archaeological field technician. Her archaeological research interests focus on Amerindian sites in the northeast during European expansion. She has participated in a variety of excavations including a 17 th century Susquehannock site and a French and Indian War site in Pennsylvania, as well as colonial sites and an Indigenous site in Maryland, and a 14 th century site in Belgium. Jasmine is also an avid violinist and has enjoyed playing in symphonic and pit orchestras as well as quartets since she was eight years old. She devotes her spare time to animal rescue organizations, working to raise funds for and to aid abandoned and neglected animals. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank my family. Without their endless support (both financially and emotionally) and patience this project would not have been possible. My academic advisor at Cornell University, Dr. Kurt Jordan, has provided continual aid and encouragement throughout the past year, helping me formulate my research questions and bring my vision to fruition. Dr. Frederic Gleach has likewise been instrumental in the creation of this thesis, constantly offering a fresh perspective on various issues. I also thank Dr. James Bradley for sharing his years of research with me in the hope of further questioning the Susquehannock model. To the archaeologists and collectors who shared their stories with me -- Dolores Elliot, Ted Keir, and Dick Cowles -- I offer my sincerest thanks. A very important thank you must also be made to the Tioga Point Museum and Susquehanna River Archaeological Center of Native Studies, headed by Val Jacoski and Deb Twigg respectively. Without the aid of these museums, this project would not have been possible. A further thanks goes to Deb Twigg for her complete dedication to this project, selflessly volunteering her time and aid. Last, but not least, I would like to thank Matthew Krohn and Peregrine Gerard-Little for their insights and comments on an earlier version of this thesis. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Biographical Sketch ................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................. iv Table of Contents .................................................................................................... v List of Figures ......................................................................................................... vii List of Tables .......................................................................................................... viii Chapter 1: Introduction ......................................................................................... 1 Goals ............................................................................................................. 3 Chapter Descriptions .................................................................................... 4 Chapter 2: Protohistory ......................................................................................... 7 Early European Trade ................................................................................. 9 Susquehannock Protohistory ...................................................................... 14 Proto-Susquehannock versus Proto-historic Susquehannock .................. 22 Upper Susquehanna River Valley .............................................................. 24 Chapter 3: Proto-Susquehannock Sites .............................................................. 28 Excavation History ..................................................................................... 28 Sites in Tioga County, New York ............................................................... 36 Sites in Bradford County, Pennsylvania .................................................... 42 Sites in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania ...................................................... 69 Analysis ........................................................................................................ 70 v Chapter 4: Proto-Susquehannock Ceramic Seriation ........................................ 77 Overview ...................................................................................................... 77 Analysis ........................................................................................................ 84 Chapter 5: ‘Exotic’ Pottery – The Significance of Intersocietal Ceramic Variability ................................................................................................ 91 Definition ..................................................................................................... 91 Types of Variation ....................................................................................... 92 Explanations for Variation ......................................................................... 94 Examples of Variation ................................................................................ 96 Problems with Variation Models ................................................................ 100 Application to Proto-Susquehannock Study .............................................. 104 Chapter 6: Conclusion ........................................................................................... 105 Appendix ................................................................................................................ 109 Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 112 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Historic Susquehannock Sites in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania .......... 2 Figure 2.1 Proto-Susquehannock Sites in the Upper Susquehanna River Valley ...... 25b Figure 3.1 Excavation Maps of Spanish Hill site (36Br27) ....................................... 57 Figure 3.2 Proto-Susquehannock sites by site type ................................................... 72 Figure 3.3 Copper Artifacts found at Proto-Susquehannock Sites ............................ 75 Figure 4.1 Pottery Anatomy ...................................................................................... 80 Figure 4.2 Proto-Susquehannock sites by Pottery Type ............................................ 85 Figure 4.3 Relationships between Pottery by Site ..................................................... 88 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Ten Stages of Susquehannock Cultural History .................................. 20 Table 4.1 Presence of Susquehannock-related Pottery Types by Site ................. 87 viii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The Susquehannock Indians are historically and popularly known as the dominant Indigenous tribe in seventeenth-century Pennsylvania (Figure 1.1). Strategically located on the Susquehanna River throughout Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, the politically and economically influential Susquehannocks were prominent traders with the Dutch, English, and Swedish colonies throughout the seventeenth century, providing a crucial economic link between the early European coastal settlements and the fur-trappers of the interior. The apex of Susquehannock influence can tentatively be temporally defined as the mid-seventeenth century, after