Media Literacy This page intentionally left blank Media Literacy Keys to Interpreting Media Messages FOURTH EDITION Art Silverblatt, Andrew Smith, Don Miller, Julie Smith, and Nikole Brown Copyright 2014 by Art Silverblatt All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy- ing, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Silverblatt, Art. Media literacy : keys to interpreting media messages / Art Silverblatt, Andrew Smith, Don Miller, Julie Smith, and Nikole Brown. — Fourth edition. pages cm Includes index. ISBN 978-1-4408-3091-4 (hardback : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-4408-3092-1 (e-book) — ISBN 978-1-4408-3115-7 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Media literacy. I. Title. P96.M4S594 2014 302.23—dc23 2014001562 ISBN: 978-1-4408-3091-4 (cloth) 978-1-4408-3115-7 (paper) EISBN: 978-1-4408-3092-1 18 17 16 15 14 1 2 3 4 5 This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook. Visit www.abc-clio.com for details. Praeger An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC ABC-CLIO, LLC 130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911 This book is printed on acid-free paper Manufactured in the United States of America To my Media Literacy Buddies: • Respected ML scholars and colleagues: Frank Baker, Liz Thoman, Kathleen Tyner, Renee Hobbs, and Marieli Rowe • Partners: Yupa Saisanan Na Ayudhya, Sara Gabal, Kit Jenkins, Jessica Brown, and my DIMLE co-authors • My young ML scholars: Zoey Wong, Ahmed (Naz) Nasr El Din, Naoko Onishi, Bobbie Watson, and Chris Penberthy • The co-authors of this fourth edition: Julie Smith, Andrew A. Smith, Don Miller, and Nikole Brown • And, of course, Margie, Leah B., Ozzie, and Chub. —Art For N. L. Nilsson, Because. —Julie Smith To my mentor, Art Silverblatt, for helping me to see the world in a different way. To my parents, William and Deborah Smith, for always encouraging me to pursue what I love. And to my wife, Sarah, for being everything I could have ever hoped for in another human being. —Andrew Allen Smith To Bob: Your faith, love, and support is immeasurable. To Morrie: You’ve changed my life in ways that I hadn’t even imagined possible. I love you both. To Art: Thanks for the opportunity! You are an incredible mentor. —Don Miller To my mother, Karan Brown— Who always said I was special for having dreams, but the only reason I had them was because of her. —Nikole Brown This page intentionally left blank Contents Preface to the Fourth Edition ix PART 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1. Introduction to Media Literacy 3 PART 2: KEYS TO INTERPRETING MEDIA MESSAGES 15 2. Process 17 3. Historical Context 65 4. Cultural Context 95 5. Structure 117 6. Framework 141 7. Production Elements 167 Worksheet: Keys to Interpreting Media Messages 203 PART 3: MEDIA FORMATS 211 8. Journalism 213 9. Advertising 273 10. American Political Communications 339 11. Digital Media Communications 403 PART 4: ISSUES AND OUTCOMES 447 12. Issues in Media Communications 449 13. Outcomes 499 Suggested Reading 515 Index 517 vii This page intentionally left blank Preface to the Fourth Edition Media Literacy: Keys to Interpreting Media Messages offers a critical approach that will enable students to better understand the information conveyed through the channels of mass communication—print, photogra- phy, film, radio, television, and digital media. One of the principal goals of Media Literacy is to enable students to realize a healthy independence from the pervasive influence of the media. The organization of the fourth edition remains the same as the previous editions. Part 1 (chapter 1) presents an introduction to the discipline of media literacy. Part 2 (chapters 2–7) presents a theoretical framework for the criti- cal analysis of media texts—the Keys to Interpreting Media Messages. Part 3 (chapters 8–11) applies this methodological framework to the following media formats: journalism, advertising, American political communications, and digital media communications. Part 4 (chapters 12 and 13) considers a range of mass media issues (violence in the media, media and children, media and social change, and global communications), and a discussion of potential outcomes, once individuals have become media literate. However, since the first edition of this text was published in 1995, much has happened in the world of media. The text reflects recent developments, particularly in the realm of digital literacy. In addition, many examples (particularly the chapters on American Political Communications and Dig- ital Media Communications) in earlier editions are outdated and have been replaced by current examples. ix This page intentionally left blank PART 1 INTRODUCTION 1 This page intentionally left blank 1 Introduction to Media Literacy When children 4–6 were asked in a survey, “Which do you like better, TV or your daddy,” 54 percent said “TV.”1 The media have assumed a large role in the lives of the average American family. For instance: • Only 59 percent of adults talk with other family members during the course of an evening.2 • Only 34 percent of parents spend time with their children during the evening.3 • The average American married couple spends only 4 minutes a day in “serious” conversation.4 • Parents spend an average of 5.5 minutes per day in “meaningful con- versation” with their children.5 At the same time: • Watching TV is the dominant leisure activity of Americans, consum- ing more than double the amount of time we spend socializing.6 • The average American watches more than 70 days of nonstop viewing per year.7 • 40 percent of Americans always or often watch television while eating dinner.8 • 25 percent of Americans fall asleep with the TV on at least three nights a week.9 And remember that television represents only one media system. 3 4 | Media Literacy The traditional definition of literacy applies only to print: “having a knowledge of letters; instructed; learned.” In light of the emergence of the channels of mass communications (i.e., print, photography, film, radio, television, and digital media), this definition of literacy must be expanded. The National Telemedia Council defines media literacy as “the ability to choose, to understand—within the context of content, form/style, impact, industry and production—to question, to evaluate, to create and/or pro- duce and to respond thoughtfully to the media we consume. It is mindful viewing, reflective judgment.”10 At the National Conference on Media Literacy sponsored by the Aspen Institute in December 1992, the groups’ representatives settled on a basic definition of media literacy: “It is the ability of a citizen to access, analyze, and produce information for specific outcomes.”11 This author’s definition of media literacy builds on the preceding ideas but emphasizes the following elements: 1. Media literacy promotes the critical thinking skills that enable people to make independent choices with regard to 1) which media programming to select and 2) how to interpret the information they receive through the channels of mass communication. Media literacy is, first and foremost, a critical thinking skill that is applied to the source of most of the information we receive: the channels of mass communication. However, for a variety of reasons that will be discussed later in the chapter, we often blindly accept the information that we receive through the media—with disastrous results. We develop brand loyalties that have little to do with the quality of the product. We take the word (or pictures) of journalists to provide us with a clear understanding of our world. And we vote for candidates on the basis of “gut reactions” to political spots devised by clever political media consultants. Rather than tuning to a specific program, all too often the audience simply watches the medium (“I’m gonna watch TV”). Indeed, 40 percent of TV viewers don’t bother to check the TV listings before turning on the set; instead, they simply flip through the channels to determine what they want to see (or what is least objectionable).12 One of the criteria of becoming an educated person is developing the critical faculties to understand one’s environment—an environment that, increasingly, is being shaped by the media. As Bill Moyers observes, “At stake is our sense of meaning and language, our sense of history, democracy, citizenship and our very notions of beauty and truth.”13 Introduction to Media Literacy | 5 2. Understanding the process of mass communication. By itself, a medium is simply a channel of communication; conse- quently, it is neither good nor evil. A number of factors determine the impact of a media presentation, including an understanding of the elements involved in the process of media communications: 1) media communicator, who is producing the presentation; 2) the function (or purpose) behind the production of the presentation; 3) comparative media—the distinguishing characteristics of each medium; and 4) the intended audience (see Chapters 2–5). 3. An awareness of the impact of the media on individuals and society. The media have transformed the way we think about the world, each other, and ourselves. Media presentations convey cumulative mes- sages that shape, reflect, and reinforce attitudes, values, behaviors, preoccupations, and myths that define a culture. Within this context, media literacy education has had an impact on young students’ be- haviors and attitudes with regard to alcohol14 and tobacco usage15 and eating disorders.16 In addition, media literacy “interventions” have helped curb aggressive and antisocial behaviors among third and fourth grade children.17 4.