Disaster response and adaptation to climate change in Fiji and Tonga: remote island perspectives By Ingrid Christina Johnston Bachelor of Arts (Psychology, Sociology), Australian National University Masters of Criminology, University of Sydney Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy March 2015 School of Social Sciences, University of Tasmania ii “Only after they disappear will the islands become the absolute truth of the urgency of climate change, and thus act as a prompt towards saving the rest of the planet”(Farbotko, 2010, p47-48). “What kind of society creates the conditions that result in one population with the means to escape suffering and another population without the means to escape suffering?” (Nickel and Eikenberry, 2007, p.538). iii Declaration of Originality This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for a degree or diploma by the University of any other institution, except by way of background information and duly acknowledged in the thesis, and to the best of my knowledge and belief no material previously published or written by another person except where due acknowledgement is made in the text of the thesis, nor does the thesis contain any material that infringes copyright. ________________________ ____________________ Ingrid Johnston Date Authority of Access This thesis may be made available for loan and limited copying and communication in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. ________________________ ____________________ Ingrid Johnston Date Statement of Ethical Conduct The research associated with this thesis abides by the international and Australian codes on human and animal experimentation, the guidelines by the Australian Government’s Office of the Gene Technology Regulator and the rulings of the Safety, Ethics and Institutional Biosafety Committees of the University. Tasmanian Social Science Human Research Ethics Committee Ref. Number: H0012313. ________________________ ____________________ Ingrid Johnston Date iv Statement Regarding Published Work Contained in the Thesis Portions of the following published and in review works are referenced and contained in the thesis: Johnston, Ingrid (2014) Traditional warning signs of cyclones on remote islands in Fiji and Tonga. Reviewed by Environmental Hazards, currently implementing changes for re-submission. Johnston, Ingrid (2015) Let them feed him biscuits: Doing fieldwork in Fiji with the family [44 paragraphs]. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 16(1), Art. 17, http://nbn- resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs1501170. Johnston, Ingrid (2014) Disaster management and climate change adaptation: a remote island perspective. Disaster Prevention and Management Journal, 23 (2), 123-137. Johnston, I. (2013) Cross-cultural Research: Talanoa in the Pacific. In: M. Walters (ed.) Social Research Methods 3rd edition, Oxford University Press: Melbourne. Heckenberg, D. and Johnston, I. (2012) Climate change, gender and natural disasters: Social differences and environment-related victimisation. In R. White (ed.) Climate change from a criminological perspective. Routledge Press: London Selected copies of these single-authored, peer reviewed publications are contained in Appendix B of the thesis. The publishers of each of the publications contained in this thesis hold the copyright for that content, and access to the material should be sought from the respective publishers, editors and journals. The remaining non-published material of the thesis may be made available for loan and limited copying and communication in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. ________________________ ____________________ Ingrid Johnston Date v Statement of Co-Authorship Portions of the following publication are referenced and contained in the thesis: Heckenberg, D. and Johnston, I. (2012) Climate change, gender and natural disasters: Social differences and environment-related victimisation. In R. White (ed.) Climate change from a criminological perspective. Routledge Press: London Attribution: The researcher was the primary author of the sections of this book chapter contained within this thesis. We the undersigned agree with the above stated attribution for the above published peer-reviewed manuscript contributing to this thesis: Signed:______________________ Signed:______________________ Rob White Catherine Palmer Primary Supervisor Head of School Professor of Criminology Professor of Sociology School of Social Sciences, School of Social Sciences, University of Tasmania University of Tasmania Date:________________________ Date:________________________ vi vii Abstract In the South Pacific, an area prone to disasters of many kinds, tropical cyclones are predicted to increase in strength, track length and lifespan due to climate change. Small island developing states are going to need to adapt their disaster response accordingly. This is particularly the case for those communities on outer islands of these states, the remote islands within remote countries, where vulnerability is already especially high. These communities are out of reach of many aid organisations, and are required to be more self- reliant and resilient than most. This thesis investigates how the responses to disasters on remote islands need to change and the factors affecting the capacity for this to happen. The research focuses on remote islands in Fiji and Tonga, from the perspectives of the communities, aid organisations and governments. It examines issues of the growth of aid, the expectations it creates, the governance of the aid system, and how remoteness impacts on disaster planning and response. The research involved fieldwork in Fiji and Tonga, with stays on one remote island in each country. Both of these islands have a history of cyclones, including recent experience. This was followed by time in the regional and national capitals interviewing representatives of aid organisations and government. Included in the thesis is a reflection on the experience of doing cross-cultural research and the importance of giving voice to communities that are often left out of this kind of research. The research found that a number of variables – such as remoteness, the highly gendered structures of decision-making, differential use of traditional knowledge, and contradictory aid expectations – directly and indirectly affect the preparedness and adequacy of remote island responses to natural disasters such as cyclones. 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