Notes Introduction: Political Justice 1. I use this phrase in a general sense in this book to represent violations of international humanitarian law, and would like to remind the reader that the ICTR is far more concerned with genocide and crimes against humanity, although war crimes, in the technical sense (in this case, violations of Article 3 common to the Geneva Conventions), also come within the tribunal’s remit. 2. David Scheffer, “International Judicial Intervention,” Foreign Policy, spring 1996, 34–51. 3. Ibid. 4. See John Hagan, Justice in the Balkans: Prosecuting War Crimes in the Hague Tribunal (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 106. See also Christopher Rudolph, “Constructing an Atrocities Regime: The Politics of War Crimes Tribunals,” International Organization 55, 3, summer 2001, 681. 5. Shane Brighton, “Milosevic on Trial: The Dilemmas of Political Justice,” www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/milosevic_trial. 6. This phrase was used by Martti Koskenniemi, quoted in George J. Andreopoulos, “Violations of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law and Threats to International Peace and Security,” in Ramesh Thakur and Peter Malcontent, eds., From Sovereign Impunity to International Accountability: The Search for Justice in a World of States (Tokyo, New York and Paris: United Nations University Press, 2004), 80. 7. Andreopoulos, “Violations of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law,” 80. 8. Kingsley Chiedu Moghalu, Justice and High Politics: War Crimes and World Order in the 21st Century (2006). 9. Rachel Kerr, The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia: An Exercise in Law, Politics, and Diplomacy (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2. 10. Ibid., 3. 11. Final Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing Campaign Against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, June 13, 2000, www.un.org/icty/pressreal/ nato061300.htm, September 5, 2000. 12. Kerr, The International Criminal Tribunal, 203. 210 Notes 13. BBC World TV Interview with the author on HardTalk with Tim Sebastian, January 16, 2002. 14. See Bob Braun, “Rwandans Face a Reckoning in UN Trials,” Newhouse News Service, September 17, 2002. 15. Scheffer, “International Judicial Intervention,” 38–39. 16. Interview with Pierre-Richard Prosper, Washington, DC, June 16, 2004 (on file with the author). 1 The “Final Solution” to the “Tutsi Problem” 1. Philip Gourevitch, We Wish to Inform You that Tomorrow We Will be Killed With Our Families (New York: Picador USA, 1998). 2. Emmanuel Gasana Jean-Bosco, Byanafashe Deo, and Alice Kareikezi, “Rwanda,” in Adebayo Adedeji, ed., Comprehending and Mastering African Conflicts (London and New York: Zed Books, 1999), 141–142. 3. Ibid., 143. 4. Amy Chua, World on Fire (New York: Anchor Books, 2004). 5. Gasana et al., “Rwanda,” 145. 6. See Adam Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror and Heroism in Central Africa (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998), 225–234. 7. Chua, World on Fire. 8. Gourevitch, We Wish to Inform You, 47–49, 55–56. 9. Bill Berkeley, The Graves Are Not Yet Full: Race, Tribe and Power in the Heart of Africa (New York: Basic Books, 2001), 258. 10. Alan Kuperman, The Limits of Humanitarian Intervention: Genocide in Rwanda (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2001), 6. 11. Gasana et al., “Rwanda,” 151. 12. Kuperman, Humanitarian Intervention, 6. 13. Chua, World on Fire, 167. 14. Ibid. 15. Kuperman, Humanitarian Intervention, 7. 16. Gasana et al., “Rwanda,” 159. 17. Kuperman, Humanitarian Intervention, 9. 18. For a legal discussion of the right to one’s homeland, see Alfred de Zayas, “The Right to One’s Homeland, Ethnic Cleansing and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia,” Criminal Law Forum 6, 2, 1995, 257–314. Rwanda is one of the world’s most densely populated countries. The struggle for access to land, with its origins in the ibikingi, may have been a contributing fac- tor to the genocide. 19. Romeo Dallaire, Shake Hands With the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda (Canada: Random House, 2003), 62. Notes 211 20. Kuperman, Humanitarian Intervention, 9. 21. Ibid., 10. 22. Dallaire, Shake Hands With the Devil, 55. 23. Gasana et al., “Rwanda,” 162. 24. See report of the independent inquiry into the actions of the UN dur- ing the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, UN Doc S/1999/1257,15. 25. Dallaire, Shake Hands With the Devil, 254–257. 26. Gourevitch, We Wish to Inform You, 133. 27. See Jackson Nyamuya Maogoto, War Crimes and Realpolitik: International Justice from World War I to the 21st Century (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner, 2004), 179. 28. Prosecutor v Jean Kambanda, Plea agreement. 29. See Kuperman, Humanitarian Intervention, Nicholas Wheeler, Saving Strangers: Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); and UN Doc S/1999/ 1257, 15. 30. Samantha Power, “A Problem from Hell”: America and the Age of Genocide (London: Flamingo, 2003), xv (preface). 31. “The Clinton Administration’s Policy on Reforming Multilateral Peace Operations,” Presidential Decision Directive, 25, May 3, 1994. 32. See comments by Michael Sheehan in an interview with the U.S. Public Broadcasting System (PBS) program Frontline: “Ghosts of Rwanda,” www.pbs.org, April 1, 2004. 33. Linda Melvern, A People Betrayed: The Role of the West in Rwanda’s Genocide (London: Zed Books, 2000), 180. See also Dallaire, Shake Hands With the Devil, 374. 34. “Statement by the President of the Security Council,” UN Doc S/ PRST/1994/21, April 30, 1994. 35. S/1999/1257, 68. 36. See comments by Ibrahim Gambari in “Ghosts of Rwanda,” www.pbs.org, April 1, 2004. 37. Dallaire, Shake Hands With the Devil, 375. See also Kuperman, Humanitarian Intervention, 92. 38. Ibid. 39. Kuperman, Humanitarian Intervention, 35. 40. Prosecutor v Ferdinand Nahimana, Jean-Bosco Barayagwiza, and Hassan Ngeze, Judgment, December 2003. 41. Kuperman, Humanitarian Intervention, 92. 42. See Sharon LaFranière, “Court Convicts 3 in 1994 Genocide Across Rwanda,” New York Times, December 4, 2003. 43. Dallaire, Shake Hands With the Devil. 44. S/Res/1994/929, June 22, 1994. 45. Dallaire, Shake Hands With the Devil, 425–426. 46. Gambari, “Ghosts of Rwanda.” 47. See “UN Chief’s Rwanda Genocide Regret,” BBC News, March 26, 2004. 212 Notes 48. Kuperman, Humanitarian Intervention, 87–91. 49. S/1999/1257, 68. 50. Ibid. 51. See Gambari, “Ghosts of Rwanda.” 52. See “Rwanda, Remembered,” The Economist, March 27, 2004, 11. 53. Wheeler, Saving Strangers, 285–310. 54. “Annan Calls for Urgent Action, Even Military Intervention, to Prevent Genocide,” UN News Service, January 26, 2004, www.un.org. 2 Send in the Lawyers: The Political Architecture of Justice 1. Letter dated October 1, 1994 from the secretary general addressed to the president of the Security Council, UN Doc S/1994/1125, October 4, 1994, Annex [Preliminary report of the Independent Commission of Experts established in accordance with Security Council resolution 935 (1994), 9]. 2. Ibid. 3. UN Doc E/CN.4/1995/7 of June 28, 1994. 4. E/CN.4/1995/12 of August 12, 1994. 5. S/1994/1125, 13. 6. Ibid., 15. 7. Ibid., 39. 8. Ibid., 26. 9. Ibid., 27. 10. Ibid., 37. 11. Ibid. 12. UN Doc S/1994/115. 13. David Scheffer, “International Judicial Intervention,” Foreign Policy, spring 1996, 39. 14. Jackson Nyamuya Maogoto, War Crimes and Realpolitik: International Justice from World War I to the 21st Century (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner, 2004), 187. 15. S/Res/1994/955, November 8, 1994. 16. UN Doc S/PV 3453 (1994), containing the text of speeches deliv- ered in the Security Council by its members following the adoption of resolution 955. 17. Ibid., 3. 18. Ibid., 15. 19. Statute of the ICTR, S/Res/1994, Annex, Article 8. 20. Ibid., Article 9. 21. Prosecutor v Joseph Kanyabashi; Prosecutor v Alfred Musema. 22. S/PV 3453, 5. 23. Ibid. Notes 213 24. Statement by Mr. Yáñez-Barmevo, permanent representative of Spain, ibid., 12. 25. S/PV 3453. 26. Ibid., 11. 27. Ibid., 13. 28. Letter dated October 31, 1994 from the charge d’affaires a.i. of the Permanent Mission of Uganda to the UN addressed to the president of the Security Council, UN Doc S/1994/1230, October 31, 1994. 29. Ibid. 30. Jose Alvarez, “Crimes of States/Crimes of Hate: Lessons from Rwanda,” Yale Journal of International Law, summer 1999, 5. 31. Ibid., 4. 32. Ibid., 5. 33. S/PV 3453. 34. Ibid., 16. 35. Ibid., 17. 36. UN Doc S/RES/1995/977, February 22, 1995. 37. Interview with Bernard Muna, former deputy prosecutor of the ICTR, London, United Kingdom (July 17, 2004; on file with the author). 38. Madeline H. Morris, “The Trials of Concurrent Jurisdiction: The Case of Rwanda,” 7 Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law 349, spring 1997. 39. S/PV 3453, 5. 40. “Rwanda Executes Genocide Convicts,” BBC News, April 24, 1998, http://news.bbc.co.uk. 41. Ibid., 17. 42. S/PV 3453, 4, 12. 43. Ibid., 8. 44. Prosecutor v Jean-Paul Akayesu, Judgment. 45. Statement of Brazilian ambassador Sardenberg, S/PV 3453, 9. 46. Ibid., 10. 47. Ibid., 11. 48. Rana Mitter, “An Uneasy Engagement: Chinese Ideas of Global Order and Justice in Historical Perspective,” in Rosemary Foot et al., eds., Order and Justice in International Relations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 207–235. 49. Ibid., 50. Wu Hui, “Understanding International Responsibilities,” GGXX.4 (1999), 8, quoted in Mitter, “An Uneasy Engagement.” 51. Case No. ICTR-96-15-T, Decision on the defence motion on jurisdiction, June 18, 1997. 52. Ibid. 53. Ibid., 5. 54. Prosecutor v Dusko Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1-T, August 10, 1995, and the decision by the Appeals Chamber, Case No. IT-94-1-AR72, October 2, 1995.