Cultivating what is ours Local agro-food heritage as a development strategy in the Peruvian Andes Simon Bidwell A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Victoria University of Wellington 2020 Abstract The Peruvian Andes has long been portrayed as a space of poverty and marginalisation, but more recently Andean places have been reinterpreted as reservoirs of valuable patrimonio agroalimentario (agro-food heritage). Amidst global interest in food provenance and Peru’s gastronomic ‘boom’, Andean people and places have connected with different networks that value the geographical, ecological and social origins of food. This thesis explores the meaning of these changes by combining a discourse genealogy with local case studies. I first trace the emergence of interconnecting discourses of territorial development with identity and local agro-food heritage in Latin America. I explore how these discourses bring together diverse actors and agendas through arguments that collective action to revalue local agro-food heritage can offer equitable economic gains while conserving biocultural diversity, a theoretical dynamic that I term the ‘virtuous circle of products with identity.’ These promises frame in-depth case studies of Cabanaconde and Tuti, two rural localities in the southern Peruvian Andes where a range of development initiatives based on local agro-food heritage were undertaken from around the mid-2000s. The case studies combine evaluation of the economic, social, cultural and environmental impacts of the initiatives, with ethnographic perspectives that look at them through the lens of local livelihoods. The partial successes and multiple setbacks of the initiatives highlight the tensions between economic impact, social equity and biocultural diversity while underlining the limitations of existing markets to value the rich connections between place and food in the Andes. Nevertheless, by highlighting local agency in engaging selectively with these initiatives, I conclude that their overall legacy has been largely positive. I suggest that connections being made between place, food and development can provide material and discursive support for diverse territorial economies, defined as the locally specific ways people in the Andes pursue their aspirations while retaining what they value about place, farming and food. Acknowledgements Completing this thesis has been a journey that I have been privileged to undertake with the help and support of many people. Many thanks to my primary supervisor, Professor Warwick Murray, for the support, for the opportunities to write articles, and for the connections to the Marsden Fund ethical value networks project. To my second supervisor, Marcela Palomino Schalscha, I am very grateful for the extra time you put in, and for your insights and rigour. I am grateful to Victoria University of Wellington for providing a doctoral scholarship. Thanks to everyone in the School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, Faculty of Graduate Research, Library and ITS for their help. A special mention to Patricia Stein for helping reduce my stress levels. En Perú, hay muchas personas que quisiera agradecer. Aprecio la generosidad de todos los que participaron en esa investigación, compartiendo conmigo sus conocimientos, opiniones, y experiencias. En Cabanaconde, agradezco sobre todo a Ruth y Lili por la ayuda, las conversaciones, y por contestar tantas preguntas. Gracias también a señora Prudencia, Honorio, Dante, señora Ubaldina, señora Sonia, señora Sayda y Nixon. En especial, agradezco a Aquilino por siempre buscarme un espacio para dormir y dejarme preparar mi café y huevos revueltos. En Tuti, quiero agradecer a la señora Florencia y al señor Jesús por su hospitalidad y su ayuda. Gracias también a la señora Narcisa por sus aportes, y a la municipalidad y las asociaciones por permitirme asistir a las reuniones. Agradezco a las ONGs y las agencias públicas que a través de los años han dejado que yo participe y aprenda de sus actividades. Aprecio especialmente la paciencia de Benigno Martínez con tantos pedidos de información, y los aportes importantes de Germán Ramos. A Geovanna, gracias por siempre tener tiempo para conversar. Sin Hugo y Lizbeth nunca hubiera conocido el Colca ni aprendido tanto sobre el Perú. Muchas gracias por la amistad y las aventuras a través de los años. Gracias también a Edwin por su hospitalidad, a Pablo por siempre recibirme como amigo en el Oasis, y a Yamil por las conversaciones, las teorías y los Colca Sours. A partir de 2015, llegué a tener una nueva familia en el Perú. Quiero reconocer y agradecer a la señora Berlinda, señor Francisco (Pancho), Jordan, y a todos los miembros de las familias Infantes Lozada y Abril Velarde por la acogida que me han dado y por las muchas comidas ricas. Back in New Zealand, I would like to acknowledge my office mates Junior, Tonga and Elizabeth, Kelle and Pete for sharing ideas and conference time, Michaela for the help, and my colleagues at WorkSafe and HASANZ for their interest. Special thanks to Noam and Rachel, Amos and Aaron, for being such great friends. Thanks to Mum for proof reading my chapters and for being so encouraging, to Dad for the photos, and to you both for all the love and support through the years. I want to also acknowledge and thank the rest of my close family: Terri, Cecilia, Sophia, Alexandra and Thomas. Last but not definitely not least, to my wonderful wife Nadia. You have been on this journey with me since the beginning. Thank you for the trips and shopping, the walks and beach days, the guisos and salads. Thank you for your example of ethics and rigour in research. Above all, thank you for your kindness and love. vi Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. v List of tables ........................................................................................................................ ix List of figures ....................................................................................................................... x Institutions and acronyms ................................................................................................... xi Other acronyms ................................................................................................................. xiv Glossary ............................................................................................................................. xv Chapter 1 Introduction: Place, food and development in the Peruvian Andes .................... 1 1.1 Theoretical context: Territorial development with identity and local agro-food heritage ............................................................................................................................. 4 1.2 Methodological frameworks and research objectives ................................................ 8 1.3 Structure of the thesis ............................................................................................... 13 Chapter 2 A methodological journey in the Andes ............................................................ 15 2.1 Epistemology............................................................................................................ 19 2.2 Methodological frameworks .................................................................................... 20 2.3 Research methods ..................................................................................................... 26 2.4 Ethical considerations .............................................................................................. 38 2.5 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 43 Chapter 3 Difference and development in Andean Latin America.................................... 45 3.1 Representations of inequality in the Andes .............................................................. 46 3.2 Colonisation and the political economy of difference ............................................. 48 3.3 Andean difference in academic and popular discourse ............................................ 56 3.4 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 61 Chapter 4 New development discourses in Latin America ................................................ 63 4.1 Transformations in the North: Reflexive modernity and neoliberal globalisation .. 63 4.2 New development landscapes in Latin America ...................................................... 69 4.3 Analysing discourses of place, culture and environment: Enabling ‘roll-out’ neoliberalism or contesting extractivism? ...................................................................... 78 4.4 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 83 Chapter 5 Discourses of food provenance and the invention of agro-food heritage ......... 85 5.1 Global discourses of food provenance ..................................................................... 85 5.2 The construction of agro-food heritage in Peru ....................................................... 97 5.3 Analysing