Māori Urban Migrations and Identities, ‘Ko Ngā Iwi Nuku Whenua’: A study of Urbanisation in the Wellington Region during the Twentieth Century Erin Keenan A thesis submitted to Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History. Victoria University of Wellington 2014 1 2 Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................. 5 Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................. 7 Abbreviations ........................................................................................................... 11 List of Figures and Tables ................................................................................................ 13 Papakupu / Glossary ....................................................................................................... 17 Preface ........................................................................................................... 23 Chapter One: The Difficulty in Discussing Urbanisation ................................................. 27 This Thesis and Māori Urban Migrations to Wellington ............................................. 43 Chapter Two: Studying Māori Urban Migrations ............................................................ 57 Māori Histories ............................................................................................................ 59 Mana Māori History, the Figurative Paepae and Māori Oral History ......................... 67 Chapter Three: A Longer Story of Māori Settlement at Te Whanganui ā Tara .............. 77 Iwi and Hapū at Te Whanganui ā Tara: Migrations and Connections ......................... 79 Taranaki Whānui at Te Whanganui ā Tara .................................................................. 86 Colonisation and Māori Migrations ............................................................................. 90 Chapter Four: Origins of Multi-Iwi Urban Communities in Wellington ........................ 105 Urbanisation in New Zealand and Around the World ............................................... 107 Rural Māori: Modernisation and Cultural Continuities ............................................. 112 The Urban Tangata Whenua and the ‘Ngāti’ of ‘Pōneke’ ......................................... 123 Chapter Five: Māori, Urban Migrations and the War ................................................... 137 Ngāti Pōneke and the War ........................................................................................ 138 Ngāti Pōneke and the War: Manaakitanga in the City .............................................. 147 Ngāti Pōneke and the State ....................................................................................... 160 Chapter Six: Mass Māori Urban Migrations and the ‘Māori Problem’ ......................... 171 Urban Migration after the War ................................................................................. 173 Māori of the City: Tangata Whenua, Ngāti Pōneke and Other Groups .................... 185 Māori Urban Migrations and the ‘Māori Problem’, 1945-1961 ................................ 201 3 Chapter Seven: When the Māori population became an ‘Urban’ population ............. 215 Integration and Māori Communities in the City after 1961 ...................................... 217 A Majority Urban-Residing People: 1966-1976......................................................... 233 Chapter Eight: ‘Māoritanga is Māori Business’ ............................................................. 249 Further Research ....................................................................................................... 258 Appendices ......................................................................................................... 263 Appendix 1: A Note on Oral Histories ....................................................................... 263 Appendix 2: A Note on the Māori Voters Rolls, 1908 and 1919 ............................... 269 Bibliography ......................................................................................................... 275 A. Primary Sources .................................................................................................... 276 A.1. Unpublished Papers and Manuscripts............................................................ 276 A.2. Published Official Papers ................................................................................ 278 A.3. Contemporary Newspapers and Periodicals .................................................. 281 A.4. Books and Ephemera ...................................................................................... 288 B. Secondary Sources ................................................................................................ 289 B.1. Books .............................................................................................................. 289 B.2. Articles and Chapters ...................................................................................... 295 B.3. Unpublished Theses and Seminars ................................................................. 301 B.4. Online and Other Media Resources ............................................................... 304 4 Abstract Māori urbanisation and urban migrations have been the subject of much discussion and research, especially following World War Two when Māori individuals, whānau and communities increasingly became residents of towns and cities that were overwhelmingly Pākehā populated. However, Māori urbanisation experiences and urban migrations are difficult topics to address because kaumātua are reluctant to discuss ‘urban Māori’, especially considering its implications for Māori identities. The original contribution this thesis makes to histories of Māori urban migrations is that it explores these and other understandings of urbanisations to discover some of their historical influences. By discussing urbanisations directly with kaumātua and exploring historical sources of Māori living in, and moving to, the urban spaces of Wellington and the Hutt Valley through the twentieth century, this thesis is a ‘meeting place’ for a range of perspectives on the meanings of urbanisations from the past and the present. Although urbanisation was an incredible time of material change for the individuals and whānau who chose to move into cities such as Wellington, the histories of urban migration experiences exist within a scope of Māori and iwi worldviews that gave rise to multiple experiences and understandings of urbanisations. The Wellington region is used to show that Māori in towns and cities used Māori social and cultural forms in urban areas so that they could, through the many challenges of becoming urban- dwelling, ensure the persistence of their Māoritanga. Urbanisations also allowed Māori to both use traditional identities in urban areas, as well as develop new relationships modelled on kinship. The Ngāti Pōneke community is used as an example of the complex interactions between these identities and how many Māori became active residents in but not conceptually ‘of’ cities. As a result, the multiple and layered Māori identities that permeate throughout Māori experiences of the present and the past are important considerations in approaching and discussing 5 urbanisations. Urban Māori communities have emphasised the significance of varied and layered Māori identities, and this became particularly pronounced through the Māori urban migrations of the twentieth century. 6 Acknowledgments E mihi kau ana ki ngā iwi o Te Whanganui ā Tara. Ka tika ka noho tonu koutou ki te whenua o Te Whanganui ā Tara kia mau tonu ai tō koutou ahi kā. He mihi, he mihi, he mihi. I te taha o tōku matua, ko Taranaki te maunga, ko Waiwakaiho te awa, ko Te Ātiawa te iwi, ko Ngāti Te Whiti te hapū. He wahine tūturu ahau ki tēnei taha. I te taha o tōku whaea, he uri anō tēnei nō Tauiwi. I tipu ake au i Taranaki rātou ko Manawatu, ko Te Whanganui ā Tara. He maha ngā momo wāhanga o tōku whakapapa, ā, he maha ngā momo wāhanga o tōku ahuatanga. Heoi anō, ka whakahono aua wāhanga ki tēnei kaupapa. I firstly acknowledge the iwi of the Wellington area. You have continued to reside in this area so that your rights are maintained. Many greetings to you all. On the side of my father, Taranaki is my mountain, Waiwakaiho is my river, Te Ātiawa is my iwi, and Ngāti Te Whiti is my hapū. I am loyal to this aspect of my background. On the side of my mother, I am Pākehā. I was raised in the Taranaki, Manawatu and Wellington areas. Each part of my descent is an important part of who I am, and they are brought together for this thesis. This thesis is the result of a journey that would not have been possible without the help of many people. Before I began this thesis, my whānau lost one of the last surviving members of our elder generation, Dan Keenan Senior. His loss was a blow to our family and hapū, and a reminder of the value of the kōrero held by kaumātua. As a 7 result, this thesis became a small tribute to whānau who are no longer with us, including one interviewed kaumātua who passed away during the course of these studies. This thesis acknowledges that we should go out and learn from our grandparents because when an elder dies, a library burns to the ground.1 Accordingly, I am hugely appreciative of the time and patience that was provided to me from many people,