Copyright by Nancy Campbell-Jeffrey 2005 1 The Dissertation Committee for Nancy Campbell-Jeffrey certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Social Movement Theory and the Reconstruction of the Past: A Case Study of Augusto César Sandino and the Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional Committee: _____________________________ Gideon Sjoberg, Supervisor _____________________________ Henry Dietz _____________________________ Sheldon Ekland-Olson _____________________________ Lester Kurtz _____________________________ Michael Young 2 Social Movement Theory and the Reconstruction of the Past: A Case Study of Augusto César Sandino and the Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional by Nancy Campbell-Jeffrey, B.A.; M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin August 2005 3 Acknowledgments My warmest appreciation to Dr. Gideon Sjoberg for his guidance, encouragement, faith and patience. I would also like to thank Dr. Henry Dietz for his support, guidance and kindness. Many thanks to Dr. Sheldon Ekland-Olson, Dr. Lester Kurtz, and Dr. Michael Young for their comments and suggestions. My gratitude to Dr. John Donahue for his suggestions and assistance in traveling to Nicaragua. Thanks to Cathy McBride for helping me make various helpful contacts in Nicaragua. Additionally, I would like to thank the Institute of Latin American Studies at the University of Texas at Austin and also Trinity University for making it possible for me to make two trips to Nicaragua to gather data. I am particularly grateful to Roberto Cajina for taking a supportive interest in this project and directing me to key sources of information that were integral to this work. My deepest appreciation also to Tomás Borge, Miguel d’Escoto, and Lautauro Sandino for their guidance in identifying key sources of information and in furthering my understanding of Sandinista points of view. In addition, I am very grateful to Margarita Vanini for her help in utilizing Sandinista documents at the Instituto de Estudio del Sandinismo. Most importantly, I wish to express my deepest love and gratitude to my daughter, Marisa, and my husband, Russ, for their love, support, and patience throughout this project. iv Social Movement Theory and the Reconstruction of the Past: A Case Study of Augusto César Sandino and the Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional Publication No.__________ Nancy Campbell-Jeffrey, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2005 Supervisor: Gideon Sjoberg Social movement participants define themselves and their movements historically although current social movement theory tends to ignore this phenomenon This study explores how and why social movement participants reconstruct the past as a part of their movement and how this reconstructed history, or counterpast, stands in opposition to the official history constructed by the dominant group in society. Specifically, the study relies on George Herbert Mead’s theory of time in seeking to understand how the Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional reconstructed Nicaraguan history and the historical figure of General Augusto César Sandino in order to drive their revolution against the Somoza regime in the 1960s and 1970s. A feature of that reconstruction is that the Sandinistas attributed posthumous charisma (a variation of Max Weber’s concept of charisma) to Sandino. Four constructions of history are explored - those by Sandino himself and his supporters, by North Americans, by Anastasio Somoza and his v supporters, and finally, the contemporary Sandinista reconstruction of the past presented in the revolution that was victorious in 1979. The method of investigation is historical research using documents produced by proponents of the four views of history during the respective time periods. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................1 A Preview of the Study................................................................................................................4 Methodological Note ...................................................................................................................8 A Word About Style ..................................................................................................................13 Building on the Body of Work ..................................................................................................14 CHAPTER II: MOVEMENTS AND THE PAST ......................................................................15 Statement of the Problem...........................................................................................................16 Traditional Collective Behavior Theory ....................................................................................18 Resource Mobilization...............................................................................................................19 Frame Alignment .......................................................................................................................21 Political Process Model .............................................................................................................23 The Reconstruction of the Past and Posthumous Charisma.......................................................29 Mead's Reconstruction of the Past.............................................................................................30 Weber and Charisma..................................................................................................................36 The Immortality of Leaders .......................................................................................................41 A New Direction........................................................................................................................42 Theory of the Counterpast .........................................................................................................43 Posthumous Charisma................................................................................................................52 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................56 CHAPTER III: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW..............................................................................58 Nicaraguan Politics and Sandinismo .........................................................................................59 US Multinational Corporations and Nicaragua..........................................................................79 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................96 CHAPTER IV: SANDINO’S EMERGENCE: THE LIVING SANDINO................................97 Sandino on His Childhood and Youth .......................................................................................97 Sandino on His Political Awakening.........................................................................................99 Sandino on His Struggle ..........................................................................................................104 Sandino’s Followers ................................................................................................................115 Sandino Abroad .......................................................................................................................119 Return to Nicaragua & Becoming Divine................................................................................127 The Yankees Go Home............................................................................................................130 Sandino on Peacemaking.........................................................................................................135 “There Was a Hero”.................................................................................................................147 Sandino on Himself .................................................................................................................151 Sandino’s Construction of History and His Living Charisma .................................................153 CHAPTER V: SANDINO'S EMERGENCE: THE NORTH AMERICAN VIEW .................157 Civil War: Nicaragua’s “National Sport” ...............................................................................159 Sandino: The “Disturbing Element”.......................................................................................164 A “Bamboo War”.....................................................................................................................175 Marines to Withdraw ...............................................................................................................191 vii Sandino “Gives Up” ................................................................................................................195 The Somozas Rise to Power ....................................................................................................198 The United States on Sandino..................................................................................................203 Sandino, History & Charisma..................................................................................................205