Actors and Agents in Ritual Behavior: The Sanctuary at Grasceta dei Cavallari as a Case-Study of the E-L-C Votive Tradition in Republican Italy by Kevin D‘Arcy Dicus A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Classical Art and Archaeology) in The University of Michigan 2012 Doctoral Committee: Professor Nicola Terrenato, Chair Professor Elaine K. Gazda Professor Carla M. Sinopoli Professor Janet E. Richards © Kevin D‘Arcy Dicus 2012 Alla gente di Tolfa e ai miei genitori che potrebbero essere bravi tolfetani ii Acknowledgements The acknowledgements are conventionally the final addendum to the dissertation. These opening lines signal the closure of the magnum opus which has been defended, revised, formatted; it is primed for its formal inclusion in the high society of academic discourse, as if being presented at the dissertation debutante ball. The passage to this ultimate stage, from the incipient twinkle in the author‘s cerebral cortex, is littered with the corpses of euthanized chapters and passages, made blurry by sleepless nights and paludal from sweat and tears. All of the struggles make the conclusion of the labor that much more rewarding. The acknowledgments allow for what William Wordsworth called ―emotion recollected in tranquility.‖ I would not consider tranquility to be a defining characteristic of the dissertation process. Its completion, however, has allowed me to find some refuge in this unfamiliar state where I am able to reflect back on the past years and recollect not only the struggles but also the people and experiences that made this project the most valuable and memorable time of my life. Without the help from the faculty of the Department of Classical Art and Archaeology at the University of Michigan, this project would not have been what it was. Thanks go to Professor Nicola Terrenato, whose phone call to Dottore Mario Torelli first made available the sanctuary at Grasceta dei Cavallari to me for study. Thanks also go to him for agreeing to become my dissertation chair and patiently bearing the idiosyncrasies of a graduate student whom he had only just met. I also wish to recognize Professor iii Elaine Gazda, who was a very important mentor to me throughout the course of my studies. Her comments, always plentiful, on my papers have made me a better writer. Thanks go also to Professor Carla Sinopoli, whose class on Material Culture Theory first sparked my interest in this focus, and to Professor Janet Richards, who helped me compile a bibliography on sacred landscape studies and provided many of the articles themselves. All of their comments about my dissertation, furthermore, were insightful, necessary, valuable, and greatly appreciated. It goes without saying that any errors are solely those of the author. I moved to Tolfa, Italy, in August 2008 with the intention of staying for five months to study the sanctuary, its votives, and the landscape of the region. I ended up living here for two years. It is precisely this recollection that I am calling up with my ―emotion recollected in tranquility.‖ I arrived at this mountaintop village on the bus with my suitcases, not knowing anyone. By the time I left in 2010, I felt, and still feel, like a real part of the Tolfa community. I will always be indebted to the wonderful Tolfetani who made me feel so welcome. Whatever list of people I acknowledge here will certainly be inadequate to the numbers that deserve acknowledgment, but I will do my best. I thank the mayor, Alessandro Battilocchio, who welcomed me very soon after I arrived and always expressed interest in my research. Next, the town‘s extraordinarily erudite historian, Giovanni ―Johnny‖ Padroni, who first told people who I was and what I was up to. Johnny‘s help was invaluable; often he knew what I needed to do next before I knew what I needed to do next. I always enjoyed running into him in the streets, or having him over at home; it always meant something interesting was about to happen. iv This work also owes very much to Dottore Paolo Brocato and the Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici dell'Etruria meridionale, in particular Dott.ssa Anna Maria Moretti and Dottore Gianfranco Gazzetti. Without their permission, my work could not have proceeded. I especially thank Gianfranco Gazzetti for allowing me to participate in his excavations around Tolfa. They brought me a much better understanding of the region‘s settlement patterns. They also introduced me to a group of wonderful new friends, including Mascia Zullo, Manuela Mentasti, Matteo Trucco, Susanna Pacchetti, and Walter Accialini. This appreciation extends also to the staff of the Museo Civico di Tolfa, and in particular to the director, Fabrizio Vallelonga. Without his knowledge of the archaeology of the area, and his willingness to share this with me, I would have drifted without a current. Of course those people who occasionally helped me forget about my dissertation deserve my thanks as well. Special mention goes to the Pierantozzi family who welcomed me like one of their own. Pino, you were my first friend at Tolfa, and Mara, my greatest. You and your parents will always have a special place in my heart. There were so many other friends that deserve mention and it is foolish to think I can name them all. Some that come to mind: Stefano ―Sgaretta‖ Felicini, Corrine Padelli, Elisabetta Riversi, Fè Bianchi, Emanuela Giannini, Angelo Paoletti, Paola Battilocchio, Marianna Brocco, Giuseppe Piroli, Angelo Virgili, Fra Sgammix, Francesco Marcelli, Giorgia Monterubbiano, Pier Luigi Pascucci, Antonio Morra, Alicja Podemska, Elisabetta Lisi, Sara Fiore, Gianna Pinardi, Mirko Guiducci, Piero Alocchi, Piera Battilocchio, and Ac Chirone. Thank you all. I hope to see you soon in Tolfa. v To everyone at Collina Verde, the local palestra, thank you for letting me lift weights with you, thank you for picking me up in your cars when you spotted me trudging up the hill to home, thank you for your friendship. Again, there are too many to list in full: Livio, Andrea Mariani, Maurizio Sestili, Stefano Iacomelli, Carola Bartoli, Vincenzo Bencini, Brunella Carolini, Federica Sforzini, and Francesca Filabozzi. This only brushed the surface. To the Bargiacchi family, for allowing me to stay in your apartment on the top floor of your house, thank you. For one year I was more or less an extended part of your family. I miss you all very much. Back in the United States, there are a host of people to acknowledge. To my cohort who suffered with me, thank you. Special thanks go to James Cook and Alex Conison who helped me forget the stress of writing and, at times, helped me forget my own name. A huge thank you to Leilani Howard, my best friend for over a decade, whose unflagging support was the greatest help I could have received. Finally, to Jenny Kreiger, who made my return to the United States one of the best things I could have done. All of this could not have been accomplished without generous financial aid. I thank the Kelsey Museum of Archaeology and Rackham Graduate School for their continued fellowships. I also wish to thank The Etruscan Foundation, whose generous support at the beginning of the project was of paramount help while I was getting established in Tolfa I offer my thanks to those who allowed me to use their images, including the Soprintendenza di Etruria Meridionale (figures 3.2, 3.3, 3.4), Gianna Gandosi (figure vi 4.1), the Walters Art Museum (figure 6.5), and Dan Diffendale (figure 6.8). The remaining photographs are my own. vii Table of Contents Dedication ...................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... iii List of Figures .............................................................................................................. xii List of Tables................................................................................................................. xv List of Appendices ........................................................................................................xvi Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................1 A Discussion of the Terms ......................................................................................... 11 Style ...................................................................................................................... 11 Agency .................................................................................................................. 14 Style and Agency in the E-L-C Tradition ................................................................... 16 Chapter 2: The History of Caere and its Territory .......................................................... 20 The Orientalizing Period and the Aristocratic Boom .................................................. 21 The Archaic Period and the Rise of the Middle Class ................................................. 27 The Fifth Century and Decline ................................................................................... 32 The Fourth Century and the Rise of Rome.................................................................. 36 The Third to First Centuries BCE and Rome‘s Arrival ............................................... 39 Conclusion ................................................................................................................