Collective Resource Mobilisation for Economic Survival within the Turkish Speaking Communities in London Olgu Karan A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Working Lives Research Institute at London Metropolitan University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Working Lives Research Institute Faculty of Applied Social Sciences London Metropolitan University March 2015 Acknowledgements First of all I would like to thank my supervisors, Dr Leroi Henry and Professor Allan Williams for supervising my thesis. Their support, encouragement and motivation throughout this challenging period have been enormous. I would also like to thank toHülyaand Cevat Taşıran for their support along this long journey. Although I cannot disclose their names, particular thanks goes to the hard working Kurdish and Turkish migrants in North London. Without their contribution, this thesis could not have been written. It is impossible to list all the friends who supported me during my Ph.D. study. However, I extend my special thanks to Kübra Ceviz, Erhan Kurtarir, and Gözde Inal. Last but not least, my warmest thanks go to my parents. They have encouraged me emotionally, and financially supported me through all stages of this long Ph.D. journey. 2 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree at the London Metropolitan University is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without the prior written consent of the author. I guarantee that this authorization does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. 3 Abstract This study aims to generate insights into thebusiness start-up and maintenance activities ofKurdish and Turkish business owners in catering and retail sectors in North London by utilizing a new theoretical approach influenced by Charles Tilly’s (1978) collective resource mobilisation theory. The research objectives are: to examine the reasons behind the formation ofbusiness start-ups for Kurdish and Turkish business owners in the catering and retail sectors; to identify and investigate the ways in which the ‘forms of capital’ (Bourdieu, 1986) are acquired and mobilised for starting and maintaining these businesses. Methodologically, the research draws on extensive fieldwork with 65 participants. The thesis draws on qualitative research methods that enable the participants’ business start-up and maintenance experiences to be analysed in the context of the existing literature, and allows for the generation of a new theoretical approach to emerge based on their explanations. The thesis makes theoretical and empirical contributions to the field of study. Empirically, it sheds light onto two ‘invisible communities’ that are largely concentrated in the catering and retail sectors. The field study for this project presents an original contribution by examining business start-up and maintenance activities of the Turkish and Kurdish communities. Theoretically, the business start-up and maintenance activities of Kurdish and Turkish business owners are analysed through the lens of collective resource mobilisation theory. This has three components: interests, mobilisation of networks and opportunity structure. The three components provide an analytical framework for examining the interplay between agency and structural influences on thestart-up and maintenance activities of Kurdish and Turkish business owners. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................................................2 DECLARATION ..........................................................................................................................................................3 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................................4 1. CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................................8 1.1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................8 1.2. AIMS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS........................................................................................................................17 1.3. OUTLINE OF THE THESIS ....................................................................................................................................18 2. CHAPTER TWO: ANALYTICAL TOOLS AND THEORETICAL MODELS IN ..............................................................22 UNDERSTANDING ETHNIC ENTREPRENEURSHIP...................................................................................................22 2.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................22 2.2. ANALYTICAL TOOLS...........................................................................................................................................24 2.2.1. Middleman Minorities .........................................................................................................................24 2.2.2. Enclave Economies...............................................................................................................................27 2.2.3. Sojourning............................................................................................................................................29 2.3. THEORETICAL MODELS ......................................................................................................................................30 2.3.1. Introduction .........................................................................................................................................30 2.3.2. Cultural Explanations...........................................................................................................................31 2.3.3. Structuralism .......................................................................................................................................35 2.3.4. Interaction Theory ...............................................................................................................................39 2.3.5. Mixed Embeddedness ..........................................................................................................................42 2.3.6. Transnationalism .................................................................................................................................44 2.3.7. Collective Resource Mobilisation .........................................................................................................46 2.3.7.1. Forms of Capital .................................................................................................................................................... 51 2.3.7.2. Interests ................................................................................................................................................................. 55 2.3.7.3. Mobilisation of Networks ..................................................................................................................................... 65 2.3.7.4. Opportunity ........................................................................................................................................................... 69 2.4. CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................................................71 3. CHAPTER THREE: CYPRIOT, TURKISH, AND KURDISH ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN THE UK ...................................76 3.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................76 3.2. GLOBAL POLITICAL ECONOMY OF MIGRANT ENTREPRENEURSHIP: FROM INDUSTRIAL WAGE LABOUR TO SELF-EMPLOYMENT ...........................................................................................................................................................................76 3.3. MESO SCALE: BRITISH CONTEXT .........................................................................................................................84 3.4. MICRO SCALE: CTK AGENCY CONTEXT.................................................................................................................86 3.4.1. Migrations to the UK ...........................................................................................................................86 3.4.2. Cypriot, Turkish and Kurdish Migrations to the UK ..............................................................................88 3.4.3. Age Structure .......................................................................................................................................91 3.4.4. Gender .................................................................................................................................................92 3.4.5.