PART I HISTORICAL FOUNDATION Ch 1 The Problem of Terrorism, 3 Ch 2 Terrorist Methods and Weapons, 43 CHAPTER 1 THE PROBLEM OF TERRORISM OBJECTIVES The study of this chapter will enable you to: 1. Trace the history of terrorism. 2. Examine the connection among religion, politics, and terrorism. 3. Appreciate the difficulty in defining terrorism. 4. List, explain, and compare typologies of terrorism. 5. Discuss the explanations and causes of terrorism. 6. Describe international terrorism. 7. Describe domestic terrorism. KEY TERMS Sicarii Shiite Zealots Crusades Assassins domestic terrorism Thugees international terrorism French Revolution classical ideological continuum Reign of Terror right-wing extremism Ku Klux Klan left-wing extremism state terrorism dissident terrorism guerrilla warfare genocide Palestinian Liberation Organization psychopathic personality disorder Fundamentalism social learning models Islam rational choice approach Prophet Muhammad structural theories Muslims multiple marginality theory Allah relative deprivation theory Jesus globalization Koran asymmetrical warfare bible Abu Nidal organization Jihad HAMAS Sunni Hizballah 3 4 Terrorism and Homeland Security KEY TERMS al-Qaida extremism internal state terrorism Ruby Ridge incident external state terrorism Christian Identity anarchism Waco incident ecoterrorism Oklahoma City bombing Animal Liberation Front Patriot movement Earth Liberation Front THE 9/11 ATTACKS September 11, 2001 began as a typical workday in the United States. During the morning hours, com- muters from across the nation hurried to their jobs. Airports were busy as passengers boarded flights to distant cities. Unfortunately, four flights in particular would be remembered in American history as fatal flights resulting in almost 2800 deaths, scores of injuries, and billions of dollars in property damage because four teams of al-Qaida terrorists were able to hijack the planes. Two of the flights took off from Logan Airport in Boston bound for Los Angeles. One was United Airlines Flight 175 that departed at 7:58 AM. The other was right behind it, American Airlines Flight 11 that took off at 7:59 AM. After entering New York State, Flight 11 suddenly turned south, followed the Hudson River to New York City and then at 8:45 AM. slammed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center. Many first thought the crash was an accident, but 20 minutes later opinions changed when, as many eyes and cameras were focused on the disaster, Flight 175 struck the South Tower. The shocking video of Flight 175 disappearing inside the South Tower, with an explosion on the opposite side, seemed surrealistic. Each jet was traveling about 300 mph and carrying about 60,000 lbs. of fuel upon impact. Witnesses on the street were shocked as both 110-story office buildings were burning and bodies, body parts, furni- ture, and assorted debris fell to the ground. Some leaped to their deaths or were thrown out by the explosions from the jet fuel. One man tried to climb down the outside of the building, was successful at first, but lost his grip and fell to his death. As office workers scrambled down the stairs to escape, many had horrendous injuries. Several were badly burned with skin peeling off their body as they some- how found the strength to keep moving. Those trapped in the floors above the fires had no choice but to pray and await their fate. As the intense heat bent the steel supporting the buildings, upper floors began to collapse onto lower floors. Eventually, both towers came crashing down, killing those trying to escape and the brave rescue workers (Figure 1-1). A third flight involved in the attack, United Airlines Flight 93, took off from Newark International Airport at 8:01 AM en route to San Francisco. Near Cleveland, the flight abruptly headed toward Pittsburgh. Passengers on this flight had used their cell phones to talk to love ones who informed the passengers about the other attacks. As brave passengers fought to take back the plane, it crashed nose-first in an empty field 80 miles from Pittsburgh at 10:10 AM, killing all those on board. We can only imagine the struggle that ensued before the crash as passengers tried to save their lives. It was surmised that the target of this flight was the White House or the U.S. Capitol building. The fourth plane, Flight 77, departed from Dulles International Airport in Virginia at 8:10 AM and headed toward Los Angeles. In a dive toward the Pentagon, it struck at 9:40 AM, killing 189 people and injuring many. The 9/11 attacks are perhaps the most creative and most spectacular terrorist attacks that ever occurred in history. It is known that these suicide bombers were armed with box cutters, small knives and pepper spray, and claimed to have a bomb. Some passengers and crew had their throats slit as a way to terrorize and control the passengers and crew. The terrorists knew that the four planes would The Problem of Terrorism 5 THE 9/11 ATTACKS—Cont’d Figure 1-1 ■ Ground Zero (World Trade Center, New York City) following 9/11 Attacks. U.S. Navy photo by Photographer’s Mate 2nd Class Aaron Peterson. http://www.news.navy.mil/ view_single.asp?id=137 be fully loaded with fuel because of the cross-country destinations, thus transforming each plane into a powerful suicide bomb, something like a “poor person’s cruise missile.” The 19 hijackers in the four teams received various training in, for example, the martial arts and flight training. In summary, the ter- rorists were successful in infiltrating the United States, avoiding police and intelligence services, coor- dinating and executing their plan, and bringing al-Qaida and its goals to the attention of the global community. At the same time, al-Qaida underestimated the reaction of the global community to the attacks. It unleashed a global war against terrorism and two regimes fell (Afghanistan and Iraq) from military action, primarily by the United States. THE HISTORY OF TERRORISM Terrorism has a long history. Interestingly, early examples of terrorism have roots in religious convictions (Laqueur, 2001; Rapoport, 1984). Ancient terrorists were “holy warriors” as we see with certain terrorists today. During the first century in the Middle East, the Sicarii and the Zealots, Jewish groups in ancient Palestine, fomented revolution against the occupying forces 6 Terrorism and Homeland Security of Rome. The Sicarii instilled fear by using a dagger to stab Romans and Roman sympathizers during the day at crowded holiday festivities. The throngs provided cover for the killers and heightened terror because people never knew when an attacker would strike. The Zealots–Sicarii believed that by confronting the Romans, the Messiah would intervene and save the Jewish people. Between 66 and 70 AD, revolution became a reality. However, it ended in disaster for the Zealots–Sicarii. With thousands of Jews killed and the Jewish state in shambles, the survivors fled to the top of Masada where their abhorrence to being subjected to control by the Romans, who surrounded them, resulted in mass suicide. Today, we have the term “zealot,” meaning fanatical partisan. In analyzing the methods of the Zealot–Sicarii, and drawing parallels to modern-day terrorism, Poland (2005: 26–27) writes that “the primary purpose of the Sicarii terrorist strategy, like so many terrorist groups today, seems to be the provocation of indiscriminate countermeasures by the established political system and to deliberately provoke repression, reprisals, and counterterrorism.” Poland refers to Northern Ireland where, for hundreds of years, Catholics have battled Protestants. Simonsen and Spindlove (2004: 70–75) explain that during the 16th century, James I, King of England, offered land in Ireland to Scottish settlers for the purpose of establishing the Protestant church in Ireland. Conflict ensued with Catholics, but the Protestant landowners prevailed. Catholics were regulated to a life of poverty. Poland cites incidents during the 20th cen- tury when Catholics, protesting peacefully against Protestants and British rule, were killed and wounded when police and British Security Forces overreacted. In one illegal march, on January 30, 1972, thirteen people were killed and twelve were wounded. A government investiga- tion blamed demonstrators for creating a highly dangerous situation leading to inevitable violence. The deliberate provocation resulted in retaliation by the Provisional Irish Republican Army against Protestants and the British Army. Scores were killed or wounded by bombings and shootings. Poland draws another parallel from the Zealot–Sicarii movement to recent times. The Irgun Zvai Leumi-al-Israel, led by Menachem Begin, terrorized the British military government of Palestine between 1942 and 1948 in an effort to establish a Jewish state. The Irgun perpetrated many bombings and assassinations, leading to a cycle of terror and counterterror. Manifestos of the Irgun argued “No Masada.” Irgun fighters had actually studied terrorist methods of the Sicarii and the Irish Republican Army. Eventually, the British turned the problem over to the United Nations, and in 1948, the country of Israel was born. The Assassins were another religious sect that used terrorism to purse their goals (Weinzierl, 2004: 31–32). This group gave us the term “assassin,” which literally means “hashish-eater,” a ref- erence to the drug taking that allegedly occurred (perhaps rumor) prior to murdering someone. During the 11th and 12th centuries, this group evolved from the Shiites of the present-day Mideast and they believed that the Muslim community needed the purified version of Islam to prepare for the arrival of the Inman, the Chosen of God and leader of mankind. The Assassins waged a war against the majority Sunni Muslim population. Their terror strategies consisted of using uncon- ventional means, establishing mountain fortifications from which terror attacks were launched, and using daggers like the Sicarii. Although the Assassins were not successful in reforming the Islamic faith or in recruiting many converts, they are remembered for their innovations in terror- ist strategies, namely the suicide mission and using disguise and deception.