Settlement Experiences of Bangladeshi Migrants in Australia Salma Bint Shafiq Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Health, Arts and Design Swinburne University of Technology 2016 ABSTRACT Bangladeshi migrants are one of the fastest-growing communities in Australia. According to the latest census (ABS 2011a) nearly 28,000 Bangladeshi people live in Australia, with an average growth rate of 18.5% per annum since the 1990s. Further, the Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC 2014a) reveals that Bangladesh was one of the top 10 source countries for the General Skilled Migration (GSM) program from 2006 to 2011. Despite this, there is no dedicated study on the settlement experience of this emerging migrant group in Australia. This study addresses this gap in the migrant settlement literature, and focuses on the settlement and acculturation experiences of this cohort. The study identifies the reasons why Bangladeshi people migrate, and analyses the barriers to and facilitators of successful settlement. In so doing, the study gives particular emphasis to the settlement experience of Bangladeshi women migrants. The thesis first critically reviews theoretical approaches to migrant settlement with particular attention to Berry’s influential framework for understanding migrant acculturation. According to Berry’s model, acculturation occurs in two dimensions: one refers to the maintenance of heritage culture, and the other refers to the nature of engagement with a host culture. Based on this model, Berry introduces four potential outcomes of acculturation: assimilation, integration, marginalisation, and separation. The thesis tests this model with respect to Bangladeshi migrants in Australia. In line with the migration literature, the thesis identifies the factors which affect migrants’ settlement or acculturation. These factors include migrants’ pre-arrival characteristics such as age, gender, marital status, religion, cultural background, education, and host society language proficiency. Post-migration factors such as social capital, recognition of overseas qualifications, attitudes of the host society toward immigrants, and government settlement support policies also play an important role. In order to map the settlement experience of Bangladeshi migrants in Australia, the thesis then assesses the importance of these factors in relation to key settlement indicators such as employment status, income, job satisfaction, home ownership, and satisfaction with life after migration. ii The study focuses on Bangladeshi permanent migrants living in three states of Australia – New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland – where over 89% of these migrants have settled. Using a structured questionnaire, quantitative information was collected from more than 200 Bangladeshi migrants. This survey data was supported by semi- structured follow-up interviews with 52 respondents, in a gender-balanced sample to collect in-depth qualitative information. The findings reveal that social and political instability in Bangladesh has been the major determinant in decisions to migrate. In spite of maintaining a relatively high living standard in their home country, skilled Bangladeshis are migrating to the West in order to avoid these circumstances and ensure a better future for their children. The research findings also demonstrate that as Bangladeshi migrants are highly educated and skilled, language is not a major barrier to acculturation compared with other cohorts of migrants from a non-English-speaking background. However, as with many other migrant groups, educational qualifications are not always recognised in Australia. This is particularly true for Bangladeshi women. Non- recognition of qualifications has a number of negative consequences including economic hardship, psychological depression and family disruption. The findings also suggest that younger migrants are in a better position in terms of labour market outcomes and acculturation. Former onshore applicants report that rapid and frequent changes in government policies regarding skill requirements for permanent residency create uncertainty and lead to a significant waste of time and money. This can have long-lasting effects on migrants’ employment opportunities, as well as family life. Findings also suggest that government support programs and information for skilled migrants to integrate into the labour market are inadequate. On the other hand, due to advances in information technology, recent immigrants have substantially minimised the social distance between home and host countries. The findings further indicate that acculturation patterns of Bangladeshi migrants in Australia are diverse. The thesis shows that Bangladeshi migrants maintain strong bonds with their ethnic community and that their bridging capital with the host society is relatively weak. This can, in part, be attributed to misperceptions about Australian culture. There is also some evidence of changing religious practices among Bangladeshi Muslims. Anxious that their children retain connections with Bangladeshi culture, some iii of the participants in this study found themselves becoming more religious on moving to Australia; while another, smaller group reported becoming attached to different religious groups (e.g. Tablighi Jama’at or Preaching Party). These latter changes, to some extent, have occurred due to interactions with Muslims from other parts of the world. In terms of the experience of Bangladeshi women migrants in Australia the results are varied. Migration brings freedom and power for many women on the one hand while, on the other, reduced economic opportunities are also common. Aside from non- recognition of qualifications, responsibilities for young children and domestic duties are associated with downward mobility of women migrants. In general, the findings suggest that Bangladeshi migrants are integrating into Australian society. However, there remain significant barriers. The study concludes with policy recommendations derived from the respondents’ interviews. These include the need for additional support to be given to the newly arrived to help accelerate the processes of acculturation, and to minimise unnecessary dislocation. Modification of the two-year waiting period to receive social security benefits is suggested, based on the recommendations of interviewees. Furthermore, proper and effective government support is required for migrants to integrate into the labour market. A less easily fixed, but also important, barrier is cultural misunderstanding among some Bangladeshi migrants and the host society. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All praise is due to Allah The successful completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the love and support of many wonderful people. I would like to take this opportunity to extend my appreciation to them. First of all, I would like to thank both of my supervisors – principal supervisor, Associate Professor Michael Leach, and co-supervisor Dr Julie Kimber. Their support, wisdom, and insightful feedback guided me throughout my candidature. After each meeting with them I felt more confident than ever before. I have been so grateful to them for believing in me, even when I was about to lose faith in myself. I will treasure all the inspirational e-mails that I have received from them in the last four years. I would like to thank Swinburne University of Technology for providing me with the opportunity to commence my PhD in Australia. I have been so privileged to receive tremendous support from many members of Swinburne administration. I would like to thank all of them. I would like to express my special gratitude to Mr Ken Haley for proofreading and editing my thesis. I would like to extend my gratitude to my employer, the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, for granting me study leave, without which my stay in Australia to pursue this PhD would have been impossible. My sincere thanks also go to my teachers and colleagues at the Department of History, University of Chittagong. The encouragement and cooperation I received from the members of the Bangladeshi community living in New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland was unbelievable. I extend my deepest appreciation to them for voluntary participation and sharing their stories, greeting me with traditional Bangladeshi hospitality, and spending time and effort on my behalf, which brought new life to the project. Some of them also helped me in distributing the survey and supporting me to achieve the required number of responses, and that has been much appreciated. Without their support this research would have been impossible to carry on. v Inspiration from my family has been always the greatest strength in my life. I would like to pay honour to my beloved parents – my father, Professor Shah Muhammad Shafiqullah, and my mother Rabeya Begum. Their passion, care, wisdom, hard work and blessings led me to where I am today. My grandmother has been a great source of inspiration even since she passed away. I still feel her present in my thought, in any special moment. She would have been so proud if she were alive today. I would also like to pay my sincere gratitude to my father-in-law, mother-in-law, Nasrin Apa, Bulbul, Ershad and Iqbal for their encouragement and blessings to me. It has been a great pleasure to have Iqbal with us in Melbourne, who volunteered in editing the Bengali manuscripts attached in appendix. I specially recall the contribution