01-15 GEO HNBK TWIP-860976 4/8/04 12:36 AM Page 1 The Gui River, Guilin, China ▼ The story of the world begins with geog- raphy—the study of the earth in all of its variety. Geography describes the earth’s land, water, and plant and animal life. It is the study of places and the complex relationships between people and their environment. The resources in this handbook will help you get the most out of your textbook—and provide you with skills you will use for the rest of your life. ▼ Saharan sand dunes, Morocco The Amazon, Brazil ▼ Geography Handbook 1 01-15 GEO HNBK TWIP-860976 4/8/04 12:37 AM Page 2 Places and Regions Place has a special mean- ing in geography. It is not just a geographic location. It o understand how our world is connected, some also describes characteristics. T geographers have broken down the study of geography into five themes. The Five Themes of It might describe physical Geography are (1) location, (2) place, (3) human/ characteristics such as land- environment interaction, (4) movement, and forms, climate, and plant or (5) regions. You will see these themes highlighted animal life. Or it might in the Section and Chapter Assessments in The describe human characteris- World and Its People. tics, including language and way of life. Six Essential Elements To help organize their study, geographers often Recently, geographers have broken down the group places into regions. study of geography into Six Essential Elements, Regions are united by which are explained here. Being aware of these one or more common elements will help you sort out what you are characteristics. learning about geography. The World in Spatial Terms Geographers first take a look at where a place is located. Location serves as a starting point by asking “Where is it?” Knowing the loca- tion of places helps you Physical Systems develop an awareness of When studying places the world around you. and regions, geographers analyze how physical systems—such as hurri- canes, volcanoes, and glaciers—shape the earth’s surface. They also look at communities of plants and animals that depend upon one another and their surroundings for survival. 2 Geography Handbook 01-15 GEO HNBK TWIP-860976 4/8/04 12:37 AM Page 3 Geography Handbook Human Systems Geographers also examine human systems, or how people have shaped our world. They look at how boundary lines are deter- mined and analyze why people settle in certain places and not in others. A key theme in geography is the continual movement of people, ideas, and goods. Environment and Society How does the relation- ship between people and their natural surroundings influence the way people live? Geographers study how people use the environment and how their actions affect the environment. The Uses of Geography Knowledge of geography helps us understand the relationships among people, places, and environments over time. Applying geo- graphic skills helps you understand the past and prepare for the future. Geography Handbook 3 01-15 GEO HNBK TWIP-860976 7/8/04 3:01 AM Page 4 Hemispheres To locate places on the earth, geographers use Another imaginary line runs from north to a system of imaginary lines that crisscross the south. It helps divide the earth into half globe. One of these lines, the Equator, circles spheres in the other direction. Find this line— the middle of the earth like a belt. It divides called the Prime Meridian—on a globe. the earth into “half spheres,” or hemispheres. Everything east of the Prime Meridian for Everything north of the Equator is in the 180 degrees is in the Eastern Hemisphere. Northern Hemisphere. Everything south of the Everything west of the Prime Meridian for Equator is in the Southern Hemisphere. 180 degrees is in the Western Hemisphere. Hemispheres Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere Indian Ocean Asia Australia Africa Africa North Pole Europe South Pole Atlantic Pacific Ocean Antarctica Ocean Atlantic Ocean Pacific Ocean North South America America Western Hemisphere Eastern Hemisphere North Europe America Asia Atlantic Ocean Africa Pacific South Ocean America Indian Ocean Australia 4 Geography Handbook 01-15 GEO HNBK TWIP-860976 4/8/04 12:40 AM Page 5 ines on globes and maps provide information L that can help you easily locate places on the earth. These lines—called latitude and longi- tude—cross one another, forming a pattern called a grid system. Latitude Lines of latitude, or parallels, circle the earth parallel to the Equator and measure the distance north or south of the Equator in degrees. The Equator is at 0° latitude, while the North Pole lies at latitude 90°N (north). Longitude Lines of longitude, or meridians, circle the earth from Pole to Pole. These lines measure distances east or west of the starting line, which is at 0° longitude and is called the Prime Meridian. The Prime Meridian runs through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England. Absolute Location The grid system formed by lines of latitude and longitude makes it possible to find the absolute location of a place. Only one place can be found at the point where a specific line of latitude crosses a specific line of longitude. By using degrees (°) and minutes (′) (points between degrees), people can pinpoint the precise spot where one line of latitude crosses one line of longitude—an absolute location. Geography Handbook 5 01-15 GEO HNBK TWIP-860976 4/8/04 12:41 AM Page 6 he most accurate way to depict the earth is as a Mapmaking with Technology globe, a round scale model of the earth. A globe T Technology has changed the way maps are gives a true picture of the continents’ relative sizes made. Most cartographers use software pro- and the shapes of landmasses and bodies of water. grams called geographic information systems Globes accurately represent distance and direction. (GIS). This software layers map data from A map is a flat drawing of all or part of the satellite images, printed text, and statistics. A earth’s surface. Unlike globes, maps can show small Global Positioning System (GPS) helps map- areas in great detail. Maps can also display political makers and consumers locate places based on boundaries, population densities, or even voting coordinates broadcast by satellites. returns. From Globes to Maps Great Circle Route Maps, however, do have their limitations. As Map A you can imagine, drawing a round object on a 120°E 180° N 120°W flat surface is very difficult. Cartographers, or W E mapmakers, use mathematical formulas to S transfer information from the round globe to a flat map. However, when the curves of a 60°N globe become straight lines on a map, the size, shape, distance, or area can change or Great Circle Distance 5,450 mi. (8,769 km) Los be distorted. AngelesTokyo 30°N True Direction Distance 5,795 mi. (9,324 km) Great Circle Routes 0° Mapmakers have solved some problems of PACIFIC going from a globe to a map. A great circle is OCEAN an imaginary line that follows the curve of the 30°S 3,0000 mi. 3,0000 earth. A line drawn along the Equator is an 0 km 3,000 example of a great circle. Traveling along a Mercator projection great circle is called following a great circle ° Map B 0 route. Airplane pilots use great circle routes because they represent the shortest distances from one city to another. 60°E The idea of a great circle shows one impor- N ° 60°W 40 tant difference between a globe and a map. °N 60 Because a globe is round, it accurately shows North Pole great circles. On a flat map, however, the great circle route between two points may not appear N E S 120°E W to be the shortest distance. See the maps to the Los Great Circle Route Angeles right. Tokyo PACIFIC 120°W OCEAN Tru te e Direction Rou 3,0000 mi. 3,0000 180° 0 km 3,000 Polar Gnomonic projection 6 Geography Handbook 01-15 GEO HNBK TWIP-860976 7/8/04 3:08 AM Page 7 magine taking the whole peel from an orange and Winkel Tripel Projection I trying to flatten it on a table. You would either have to cut it or stretch parts of it. Mapmakers face 120°W 60°W0° 60° E 120° E ARC TIC CIRCLE a similar problem in showing the surface of the 60°N round earth on a flat map. When the earth’s surface is flattened, big gaps open up. To fill in the gaps, 30°N TROPIC OF CANCER mapmakers stretch parts of the earth. They choose EQUATOR to show either the correct shapes of places or their 0° correct sizes. It is impossible to show both. As a N TROPIC OF CAPRICOR result, mapmakers have developed different projec- 30°S tions, or ways of showing the earth on a flat piece LE °S TIC CIRC MERIDIAN OF GREENWICH (LONDON) of paper. 60 ANTARC Goode’s Interrupted ▼ The Winkel Tripel projection gives a good overall view of Equal-Area Projection the continents’ shapes and sizes. Land areas in a Winkel Tripel projection are not as distorted near the Poles as they are in the ARCTIC CIRCLE Robinson projection. 60°N 30°N TROPIC OF CANCER EQUATOR 0° Mercator Projection TROPIC OF CAPRICORN 30°S 90°E120°E150°E 180° 150° W 120° W 90° W 60°W6030°W300° ° E ° E 60°S ANTARCTIC CIRCLE ▼ Take a second look at your peeled, flattened orange. You might have something that looks like a map based on Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area projection.