University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CODESWITCHING IN ACADEMIC DISCUSSIONS: A DISCOURSE STRATEGY BY STUDENTS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA BY MILLICENT QUARCOO (10155132) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A PHD DEGREE IN ENGLISH DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON JULY, 2013 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I declare that this dissertation is the result of my original research, except for references to other works which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that no part has been published as part of the requirement for any degree in any university. …………………………… Date ……………………... Millicent Quarcoo (Student) …………………………… Date ……………………… Prof. Kari Dako (Principal supervisor) ………………………….. ………………………… Date ……………………. Date …………………… Dr. E. K. Amuzu Dr. J. A. Shoba (Supervisor) (Supervisor) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION To my mother ELIZABETH ABENA ADUUNA OFOSUA who said: ‘Awuraba yɛ nton no sotɔɔ’ (a lady is not bought from a shop) and so invested in my education. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGMENT To God be the glory great things He has done (MHB113 vs. 1) I give glory to God for bringing into my life my selfless supervisors; Professor Kari Dako, Dr. Evershed Amuzu and Dr. J Arthur Shoba who have been a blessing to me. I thank them for their encouragement, constructive criticisms, comments and most importantly, their belief in me. It is these attributes that have shaped and brought this work to its successful completion. God bless you all. I also wish to thank my husband Mr. James Nii Ayi Quarcoo for his love, encouragement, patience and support throughout the project. God bless you my husband. I acknowledge the management of Wisconsin International University College for their support and understanding. I thank Mr. Eric Boateng of the School of Communication Studies, University of Ghana, Legon and Mr. Kweku Osei Tutu of The English Department, University of Ghana, Legon for their help and contributions. May you also achieve such heights. I also acknowledge my children, both biological and non-biological – Naa Annowah Quarcoo, Naa Kwaduah Quarcoo, Maame Yaa Awisabo Twimasi Abbey, Kweku Appiah Twimasi, Kwabena Danquah Opoku Agyeman, and Elizabeth Orfson Offei for their support, love and encouragement. God bless you all and may you all surpass me. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Finally, I acknowledge all my friends – Rev. Isaac Adu Okoree, Emelia Annan, Felicity Idun, Lydia Asala, Charlotte Darko, Faustina Degbor (Mianor), Christina Ankama, Nancy Mills, Jane Quarm, Rev. Comfort Afele and all those I have not mentioned but have encouraged me one way or the other in my pursuit of this work. This work is supported by the British Academy Project on Language Practices and Values among Young People in Ghana. Millicent Quarcoo iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT The purpose of this work is to investigate the use of codeswitching (CS) as a linguistic resource by students of the University of Education, Winneba (UEW). The study seeks to answer why students in the university conduct their academic discussions in CS contrary to what is expected of them; how the use of CS contributes to the overall meaning of the topics they discuss and how students use CS as a linguistic resource to negotiate their activities in the university community. The study focused on study groups at the South Campus of the University of Education, Winneba. The social network (Milroy 1980) and ethnographic research methods (Barton & Hamilton 1998) were employed for data collection and the Community of Practice concept of Wenger (1998) was used to describe the study groups. The Markedness model of Myers-Scotton (1993) and the Conversational Analysis of Auer (1984) were used to analyze the speech data. The study found that two types of CS operate on UEW campus. These are in-group CS and out- group CS. It found that Akan/English CS is the main language for many out-group interactions on campus and serves as a lingua franca in addition to English. It serves as a bridge language between Winneba town and the university. It is also used in many study groups to discuss academic work. Finally, it found that students do not have a positive attitude towards all the indigenous languages and non-Akan students protest the prevalence of Akan on campus. The study is significant because it will enable policy makers recognize that CS occurs at all levels of education and must be given the appropriate attention. It will also serve as a reference point for future research into language changes or shifts in Ghana. Finally, it will add to existing literature in the study of language use in education. v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENT CHAPTER 1 ………………………………………………………………….. 1 INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………… 1 1.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………... 1 1.2 Background ………………………………………………………… 3 1.2.1 Codeswitching versus borrowing……………………….. 6 1.3 Research questions …………………………………………………. 9 1.4 Objectives ………………………………………………………….. 9 1.5 Significance of the study …………………………………………… 9 1.6 Limitations …………………………………………………………. 10 1.7 Organization of the study …………………………………………… 10 CHAPTER TWO ……………………………………………………………… 11 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS ………….. 11 2.1 Introduction …………………………………………………............... 11 2.2 Literature review ………………………………………………………… 11 2.2.1 Scholarly works on CS …………………………………………….. 11 2.2.2 Grammatical dimension ……………………………………………. 12 2.2.3 The sociolinguistic dimension of CS ………………………………. 13 2.2.4 CS as the language in a Community of Practice (CofP) …………… 18 2.3 Theoretical frameworks …………………………………………………. 20 2.3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………… 20 2.3.2 The Markedness Model ……………………………………………. 20 2.3.2.1 The Unmarked Choice Hypothesis ………………………. 22 2.3.2.2 CS as an Unmarked code at UEW ………………………. 22 2.3.2.3 The structure of students’ CS patterns …………………… 24 2.3.2.4 CS as a Marked Choice ………………………………….. 25 2.3.2.5 Sequential Unmarked CS ………………………………… 27 2.3.3 The Conversational Analysis Model ……………………………….. 28 2.3.3.1 Discourse – related CS …………………………………… 29 2.3.3.2 Participant – related CS …………………………………... 33 2.3.4 CS as a Contextualization cue ……………………………………… 37 2.3.4.1 CS in Preference organization ……………………………. 37 2.3.4.2 Repairs ……………………………………………………. 39 2.3.4.3 Insertion sequence ………………………………………… 40 2.3.4.4 Repetition …………………………………………………. 40 2.3.4.5 Confirmation ……………………………………………… 40 2.3.5 Justification for the two models ……………………………………. 43 2.4 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………. 44 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE …………………………………………………………… 46 METHODOLOGY ……………………………………………………………… 46 3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………… 46 3.2 Ethnographic research method …………………………………………... 46 3.2.1 Etnography in practice …………………………………………… 48 3.3 Selection of the groups …………………………………………………… 49 3.3.1 The data ………………………………………………………….. 50 3.3.2 Transcription and translation of the data ………………………… 53 3.4 Ethical issues ……………………………………………………………. 54 3.5 Challenges in the fieldwork ……………………………………………… 55 3.6 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………….. 56 CHAPTER FOUR …………………………………………………………. 58 THE UNIVERSITY COMMUNITY AND STUDY GROUP AS COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE ………………………………………….. 58 4.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………. 58 4.2 Backgrounds of Winneba and UEW …………………………………. 58 4.2.1 Winneba …………………………………………………. 58 4.2.2 The University of Education, Winneba ………………….. 59 4.2.2.1 The university and the town communities ………….. 60 4.2.2.2 Life in the university ……………………………… 64 4.3 The study group …………………………………………………….. 65 4.3.1 The organization of a study group…………………………… 66 4.3.2 Leadership in the study group…………………………… 67 4.3.3 The Church Group ………………………………………. 68 4.3.4 The SPED Group ………………………………………… 72 4.3.5 The Science Group ………………………………………. 73 4.4 The study group as a community of practice ………………………. 74 4.4.1 Interactional patterns and practices……………………… 76 4.4.2 Legitimacy of membership ………………………………. 81 4.4.3 Hierarchy and sanctions in the study group……………... 83 4.5 Conclusion …………………………………………………………... 85 CHAPTER FIVE………………………………………………………………… 86 LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL PRACTICES AT UEW ………………………….. 86 5.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………… 86 5.2 Language use in Ghana ……………………………………………. 86 5.2.1 CS in Ghana ………………………………………….. 88 5.3 Language use at University of Education ………………………….. 89 5.3.1 Competing languages on campus ……………………. 89 5.4 CS among students ………………………………………………… 95 5.4.1 Inter-ethnic group CS versus Out – group CS ………… 95 5.4.2 CS in study group discussions ………………………… 100 5.5 Language and identity ……………………………………………… 104 5.5.1 The study group identity ………………………………. 104 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.2.2 Ethnic affiliation ………………………………………. 105 5.6 Attitude towards the languages at UEW …………………………… 108 5.6.1 Language bullying, protest and submission …………… 110 5.7 CS written text ……………………………………………………… 116 5.8 Conclusion ………………………………………………………….. 117 CHAPTER 6 ……………………………………………………………………. 118 FUNCTIONS OF STUDENTS’ CODESWITCHING IN ACADEMIC DISCUSSIONS ………………………………………………………………… 118 6.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………… 118 6.2 CS in academic discussions ………………………………………… 118 6.2.1 Academic plus informal …………………………………. 119 6.2.2 Language Agreement ……………………………………. 120 6.3 Reasons for CS in academic discussions ………………………….... 127 6.3.1 CS to conceptualize English