Threads of Visual Culture: Metis Art and Identity in Ontario by Gloria Jane Bell School for Studies in Art and Culture Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research, in the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of Master of Arts Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Carleton University Ottawa, Canada May, 2010 © Gloria Jane Bell Library and Archives Bibliotheque et 1*1 Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington OttawaONK1A0N4 OttawaONK1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-68679-9 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-68679-9 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, preter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le loan, distribute and sell theses monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non­ support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privee, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de thesis. cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. 1+1 Canada 11 Abstract This is a study of how Metis identity is reflected through visual culture in the Ontario and Great Lakes region. It considers the historical development of mixed- heritage peoples in the nineteenth century and also examines present day concerns for the preservation of Metis heritage and cultural identity. The examples of visual culture I examine in the following chapters include historical paintings, objects in private collections and performances at a living history heritage park. I argue that visual culture has been and remains a key site for understanding the complex identity of Metis in Ontario and that because Ontario Metis have been largely ignored in scholarly research, visual culture is a particularly important source in understanding both the historical developments of Metis and the current renewal of Metis culture and identity. iii Acknowledgements I would like to thank a number of people for their contributions towards the research and writing process of this thesis. To my Metis kin and family who have provided me with the inspiration to write this in the first place, thank you. To all my friends and family who read over drafts and provided support and critique, I give thanks for your efforts. I would also like to thank several museum professionals and scholars whose conversations, critiques and help were important to my research process and the outcome of this project. Thank you to my supervisor Ruth Phillips, for her critique and guidance of my work and for allowing me to participate in the Great Lakes Research Alliance for the Study of Aboriginal Arts and Cultures (GRASAC). I am grateful to Morgan Baillargeon and Judy Thompson, Guislaine Lemay and Trudy Nicks for explaining the museum classification systems of their three institutions: the Canadian Museum of Civilization, the McCord Museum and the Royal Ontario Museum. Conversations with Cathy Oberholtzer and Sherry Farrell Racette were central to my appreciation and understanding of Aboriginal material culture, and their methods of inquiry were influential to my research development. I am grateful for the participation and support of members of the Metis Nation of Ontario and to Denis Tremblay for sharing his artifact collection with me. I would also like to thank the staff at Fort William Historical Park for allowing me to conduct interviews and research. IV Table of Contents Abstract 11 111 Table of Contents IV Preface Chapter One Introduction 1 Chapter Two A Lenticular History: Descriptions and Images of 27 Metis and Mixed-Heritage Peoples Chapter Three The Power of Objects: Private Collections and 63 Public Displays of Material Culture Chapter Four Re-presenting the Past, Enacting the Future: Metis 91 and Mixed-Heritage Identity at Fort William Historical Park Conclusion 109 Bibliography 113 Illustrations 119 Appendix of Interviews 137 V Preface Numerous scholars have noted the presence of mixed-heritage families within the Great Lakes in the nineteenth century, but few have attempted to understand the development and persistence of visual culture for Metis in this region. With this study, I hope to raise awareness of the role played by material culture in identity formation through the study of several different forms of visual culture including paintings, private collections and a heritage site. Through this examination, this thesis also aims to highlight the various artistic, historical and social layers that inform the sense of Metis identity and pride today. This topic has been a challenging and rewarding area of study. Challenges included understanding the complex and shifting definitions of Metis identity provided by legislation, scholarly research and contemporary political and cultural associations. I have attempted to bring clarity to these definitions in this study and to argue that Metis and mixed-heritage identity should be examined on a family and community level in order to get away from broad generalizations about identity which tell little about individual experiences. Another challenging aspect of my study was creating a balance between my role as researcher and my goal of fairly representing the voices of Metis. As a person with Metis heritage, I am still coming to grips with western academic traditions and the sometimes devastating effects they have had as tools of colonial expansion on Aboriginal communities. Yet I also recognize that research with and for Aboriginal peoples, if done sensitively, can be greatly rewarding for both the researcher and the communities involved. vi I feel proud to be Metis, yet I am also saddened by the terrible discrimination and violence that Metis families have faced and continue to experience, because of their perceived difference. I do not claim to represent all Metis with this thesis, but rather, the small group who agreed to share their perspectives with me. I have aimed for a method and writing style that is conversational and personal and which honors both the participants and my own concerns as an ethical researcher. My writing style has been influenced by anthropologists such as Ruth Behar, whose book The Vulnerable Observer, (1996) is powerful in its ability to draw on personal memory and let this inform her work. She makes a strong case for the value of incorporating personal views and memories into one's work.1 Furthermore, I sense that many of these questions on identity are open- ended and will have various interpretations, mine being one of many. I found when conducting my interviews with Metis at the Annual General Assembly in Sudbury, August 2009 that a common thread was the pride that many people feel about their Metis heritage, whether they originate from western Canada or from the Great Lakes region, the area that is the focus of this study. One of the most rewarding times of my research was interviewing Metis, young and old, and hearing what being Metis means to them. I feel privileged to have listened to their stories and these voices will be presented in my study where appropriate. I hope that this study will create more interest in this topic and that people will continue to debate and research the visual culture of the Metis and mixed-heritage families within the Great Lakes area. This whole project may be thought of as a personal and collaborative contribution to the collective memory of Metis in Ontario, through the voices presented in conversation and through 1 Ruth Behar, The Vulnerable Observer: Anthropology that Breaks Your Heart, (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996). vii art. In this study I will predominantly use the terms Metis, Half-Breed and mixed- heritage rather than other terms which connote racial paradigms of previous centuries. I will address the issue of terminology in more detail in Chapter One. 1 Chapter One - Introduction This is a study of how Metis identity is reflected through visual culture in the Ontario and Great Lakes region. It considers the historical development of mixed- heritage peoples in the nineteenth century and also examines present day concerns for the preservation of Metis heritage and cultural identity. The examples of visual culture I examine in the following chapters include historical paintings, objects in private collections and living history performances. I argue that visual culture has been and remains a key site for understanding the complex identity of Metis in Ontario and that because Ontario Metis have been largely ignored in scholarly research, visual culture is a particularly important source in understanding both the historical developments of Metis and the current resurgence of Metis culture and identity. The rapidly growing number of people identifying as Metis today is based on a renewal of Metis pride paralleling other indigenous movements for recognition of rights and freedom of identity.