BACKGROUND MUSIC AND THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT: BORROWING FROM OTHER DISCIPLINES. by MICHAEL GRIFFIN Supervisor Dr IGUSTI DARMAWAN RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF EDUCATIONAL STUDIES SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE June 2006 Table of Contents 1. Introduction 03 I. Background 04 II. Aims and significance 04 III. Scope and limitations 05 2. Why and how we learn 06 I. The learning environment 06 II. Emotions, feelings and learning readiness 08 III. Music, emotion and arousal 09 IV. Arousal and learning 11 3. Human response to music 14 I. Tempo 14 II. Tonality 16 III. Texture 17 IV. Volume, form and melodic range 17 V. Pitch 18 VI. Combination effects 19 VII. Response variation 19 4. Research into the use of background music 20 I. Health 20 II. Consumerism 22 III. Work-place 24 IV. Education 27 5. The problem with music selection in prior research 31 6. Discussion and conclusion 34 I. Summary 34 II. Global goals of education 35 III. Applying BM to the learning environment 36 IV. The future and further investigation 39 7. Reference list 42 2 Background Music and the Learning Environment: Borrowing from other Disciplines Michael Griffin 2006 1. Introduction I. Background Human beings have always enjoyed a special relationship with the organisation of audible sound we call music. Indeed, music is our oldest form of expression (Menuhin 1979), and we know of no culture or civilisation to have existed without some form of music-making. Through the passage of time, the roles and functions of music have represented manifold expressions to people, and in the present day music is ubiquitous and readily available to all who seek it. Recent advances in digital music technology and portable/personal music-playing devices have resulted in background music being listened to by more people than ever before. One market research study (Lo 2005) estimated “explosive growth and more to come” in the mp3 player market. The nature of human inquisitiveness extends to our need to understand our emotional responses to music: Why does it move us so? How does it inspire, motivate, console and relax us? Is music an unnecessary albeit enjoyable adjunct to human existence or are there intangible but real effects imparted on the human condition? And pertinent to this study, what is the relationship between the presence or absence of music and human task performance? The body of academic research into the physiological, psychological and cognitive effects of background music (BM) on human beings is growing rapidly. Advances in neuroscientific brain imaging techniques and the emergence of relatively new fields such as music therapy, music medicine and music psychology - as well as the highly sophisticated commercial retail marketing sector have been at the forefront of research into the effects of BM on human behaviour and response. For example, medical studies have been exploring the use of music with heart beat regulation, memory restoration with dementia patients, re-routing verbal expression 3 Background Music and the Learning Environment: Borrowing from other Disciplines Michael Griffin 2006 through music and improving recovery rates following surgical procedures (Pelletier 2004). Marketing specialists are researching the link between music, brand association and eating/drinking habits, and manipulating customer satisfaction in adverse situations such as crowded places, waiting cues and on-hold phone calls (Lammers 2003; Jacob 2006). In comparison, the education sector has undertaken fewer investigations into the use and effects of BM in educational settings and those that do exist tend to focus on whether BM can lift performance or change the behaviour of school students in the classroom (Hallam and Price 1998). II. Aims and significance The purpose of this essay is to review the growing body of research into the effects of BM listening on human mood and behaviour in a multi- disciplinary context. Ultimately, it is hoped that outcomes resulting from this research paper will better equip schools and parents with knowledge about the effects and applications of music in maximising the learning environment; in particular improving cognition and constructive behaviours. I will examine methodological flaws within some research models, namely the selection of music for research, and propose ideas for further studies in the educational context. There is little documented evidence of discriminate BM use in schools. However, the sum of research from other disciplines and perspectives creates a powerful educators’ lobby for more serious consideration of the creative use and implementation of BM within educational settings. 4 Background Music and the Learning Environment: Borrowing from other Disciplines Michael Griffin 2006 III. Scope and limitations The scope of this essay deals with BM listening on a conscious and sub- conscious level. BM refers to “music intended to be heard but not actively or purposely listened to” (Musselman 1974, in Bendall (1994)). It does not refer to organised, analytical listening, and is distinct from music education curriculum programs or practical music making. This is not intended to be an advocacy paper for music education’s inclusion in curricula. This paper researches the associated benefits (non-musical) derived from the listening of BM; benefits in knowledge or performance in the other intelligences as listed by Howard Gardner (1984). The behavioural effects encountered when listening to music will be considered short-term unless otherwise stated. There may well be lasting effects resulting from music listening, but that is beyond the scope of this paper. In any case, short-term benefits are not insignificant, for the best learning often takes place in small time sectors when arousal and on-task performance levels are high. This is the value of carefully selected BM: to enhance the level of arousal required for optimal learning. The scope of this study describes how educators can maximise all learning experiences. Whilst this study deals with music, educators should be constantly searching and evaluating the correlation between environmental conditions, classroom facilities and student outcomes. Lighting, temperature, ventilation, noise, decoration and space management should all be considered as arousal stimuli, and many of these factors are being explored (Leung and Fung 2005). 5 Background Music and the Learning Environment: Borrowing from other Disciplines Michael Griffin 2006 2. Why and how we learn I. The learning environment “Learners instinctively want to understand how the world works. This understanding gives them an improved capacity to cope with their environment” (Author-Unknown n.d). We can substitute ‘human beings’ for ‘learners’, as surely no creature has such a disposition or a desire to learn as humankind. This is supported by music education philosopher Elliott (1995) who asserts that the true goals in life are self growth, self-esteem and enjoyment (p.119). But we know this. Every parent and educator has witnessed their children’s intrinsic enjoyment when a new sense of the world is understood. Self-growth comes not only from introspection and self-knowledge, but also from understanding the world around us. The successful acquisition of self-knowledge results in self-esteem (ibid, p.118), which prepares the learner for new experiences and increased consciousness. Human beings seek self-esteem and happiness more than anything else -Aristotle Self-esteem is essential for positive human behaviour and for further learning preparedness. It provides us with the courage to try new things and decreases our fear of failure. The modern day educational climate subscribes to positive reinforcement methodologies to boost the self- esteem of students. We believe that any increase in self-esteem results in greater resilience in difficult times. Successful learning results in self- esteem leading to a renewed desire to learn. And unless this cycle is interfered with, we have a working model of the self-motivated individual. 6 Background Music and the Learning Environment: Borrowing from other Disciplines Michael Griffin 2006 Figure 1: Successful learning model This self-motivated individual has experienced success and enjoyment in learning, and wants to repeat the experience. S/he has probably entered into the first stage of ‘flow’, a term invented by psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (1990) which implies an optimal learning zone in which one has a depth of concentration, is enjoyably lost in the activity and extremely focussed on the task at hand. We have many synonyms for this learning condition: focussed, engaged, switched-on, in the zone (usually for sport), fired up (in competition) and I’m sure, many more. In its purest sense, Csikszentmihalyi’s realization of ‘flow’ comes about when the challenge set is met by the skills required. Anxiety high FLOW Challenge Boredom low low low Skills high Figure 2: adapted from Csikszentmihalyi (1990) pg. 74 7 Background Music and the Learning Environment: Borrowing from other Disciplines Michael Griffin 2006 For now, I would like to consider flow as an increase in on task performance (OTP). II. Emotions, feelings and learning readiness Our mood state, affected by our emotions and feelings can enhance or interfere with the successful learning model of the engaged individual. Human understanding of the role of the emotions in human intelligence and behaviour has grown and changed significantly over the centuries. For the Greek Philosophers the