The Jehovah’s Witness Tradition Religious Beliefs and Healthcare Decisions Edited by Edwin R. DuBose Revised by M. James Penton he origins of the Jehovah’s Witnesses go back to T1879, when a Pittsburgh businessman named Charles Taze Russell (1852-1916) began publishing the magazine Zion’s Watch Tower and Herald of Christ’s Presence. Two years later he founded Zion’s Watch Tower and Tract Society, which was incorpo- rated in 1884 in Pennsylvania. Within ten years, a Contents small Bible study group had evolved into scores of The Individual and the 4 congregations. In 1909 the society moved its Patient-Caregiver Relationship headquarters to Brooklyn, New York, where it remains today. The name Jehovah’s Witnesses was Family, Sexuality, and Procreation 6 adopted in 1931 (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Genetics 7 Society of Pennsylvania [hereafter cited as Watch Organ and Tissue Transplantation 8 Tower Society] 1974: 149-51). Jehovah’s Witnesses base their beliefs on the Bible, Mental Health 8 which they regard as the inspired, inerrant Word of Medical Experimentation 9 God. Their theology includes a doctrine of and Research “progressive revelation,” however, which allows their Death and Dying 9 leaders to change biblical interpretations and doctrines frequently (Penton 1997: 165-71). For Special Concerns 10 example, they long taught that the present “system of things” would end before all members of the gener- ation alive in 1914 would die. Now, although they teach that the end, marked by the Battle of Edwin R. DuBose, Ph.D., is Senior Ethics Consultant and Director Part of the “Religious Traditions and of Clinical Ethics at the Park Ridge Center for the Study of Healthcare Decisions” handbook series Health, Faith, and Ethics. published by the Park Ridge Center for the Study of Health, Faith, and Ethics M. James Penton, Ph.D., is a retired professor of history and religious studies at the University of Lethbridge and a specialist in Jehovah’s Witnesses. THE PARK RIDGE CENTER Armageddon, is still imminent, they no longer think they are.” In earlier times Witnesses hold that it must come within the generation of perceived a demonic role in the origin of 1914 (Penton 1997: 316-17; Watchtower, 1 disability and disease (Cumberland 1986: 47-71). November 1995, 18, 19). In contrast to many Christian denominations, Armageddon will rid the earth of Satan and the Witnesses did not create their own all his forces. Only Jehovah’s Witnesses will healthcare institutions. According to the Watch survive this worldwide conflict, which will result Tower Society, they were not to operate hospitals in a millennium of peace and righteousness, and clinics; the world’s time was “too short.” during which billions of dead persons will be Clayton J. Woodworth, the editor of The Golden resurrected and given a chance to prove Age and Consolation magazines, was influential themselves worthy of eternal life. During this in this area: he regarded the American Medical period an “anointed” class of 144,000 saints will Association as “an institution founded on rule with Christ in heaven as spiritual beings, ignorance, error, and superstition,” denied the while those loyal to Jehovah on earth will germ theory of disease, attacked the use of gradually regain the perfection had by Adam vaccination as a violation of God’s law, and and Eve before the Fall (Watch Tower Society regarded the use of aluminum cookware as 1995: 182-3). dangerous to health (Penton 1997: 66). Since the magazines edited by Woodworth were official Watch Tower publications, most Witnesses FUNDAMENTAL BELIEFS CONCERNING believed that Woodworth’s opinions represented HEALTH CARE official positions of the Society (Cumberland 1986: 473). Jehovah’s Witnesses no longer hold In their approach to health, illness, and medical such views, and in recent years they have shown care, Witnesses are determined not to violate a much more positive attitude toward modern what they regard as God’s standards concerning science and the medical profession. the value and meaning of life in all its spiritual Although the Witnesses’ rejection of blood and physical aspects (Watch Tower Society 1990: transfusions is well known, many healthcare 6; Watch Tower Society 1989: 14). From the providers have little knowledge of the wider beginning of the movement, Witnesses have context of their views concerning health and stressed publishing and preaching above curing illness. The Governing Body of Jehovah’s physical and social ills. When the Millennium Witnesses has therefore encouraged the arrives, they believe, all problems, including formation of hospital liaison committees in those related to health, will be solved. Russell, major cities with large medical institutions. for example, felt that suffering could be By 1992, over one hundred committees existed redemptive, that instead of making one rebel- in major cities in the United States to improve lious, it could refine one’s character through the understanding between providers and the “blessings of afflictions and sorrows” and would Witness community (Awake! 22 November help prepare one for the end time (Cumberland 1990, 21; Kingdom Ministry, September 1992, 1986: 472). Suffering, patiently borne, 3-5). In recent years Witnesses have generally strengthened character. sought and accepted qualified professional Russell also believed that disease was a health care within religious parameters such as degenerative process that began with Adam’s fall refusal of blood transfusions (Tabbert 1992: 2). from grace and would not be reversed until after The majority rely on biomedical science and Armageddon. He also recognized a psychoso- trained medical personnel for their health care matic element in illness, asserting that “one half (Watch Tower Society 1977: 27). of the people in the world are sick because they 2 THE JEHOVAH’S WITNESS TRADITION: RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND HEALTHCARE DECISIONS Jehovah’s Witnesses are committed to the Witnesses have a presence (Watch Tower Society Bible as a source of ethical values for all 1986: 26-27; 1989: 9; 2002). humankind. Scripture is used as a guide for all Each local congregation is governed by elders aspects of life (including, for example, diet and or overseers who supervise it and look after its hygiene). It also serves as the source of moral needs. These elders are not clergy; rather, they principles and ethical norms that have been supervise the instruction provided through the passed down and followed through the Watch Tower Society at meetings, lead in centuries. The way in which people respond to preaching activities, and visit members to these principles reveals a fundamental orien- encourage them as needed. Elders also have tation to life. Ethical analysis is done through responsibility to reprove and administer disci- reading and applying Scripture; because the pline through “judicial committees” to any who Bible does not comment directly on organ trans- may be following a wrong course and who plants, for example, decisions about transplants endanger the spiritual and moral purity and are left to the individual Witness (Watchtower, unity of the congregation. Under various 15 March 1980, 31), although, curiously, for circumstances Witnesses may be expelled from many years such transplants were regarded as a their congregations as “unrepentant wrong- form of cannibalism (Watchtower, 15 November doers,” a practice known as “disfellowshipping” 1967, 703; Penton 1997: 112-14). Because bone (Watch Tower Society, 1991: 90-100), or they marrow transplants may contain blood, may simply be held to have “disassociated” Witnesses are cautioned that it may be wrong to themselves for such things as joining another accept them (Watchtower, 15 May 1984, 31). religious organization or serving in the armed forces (Watch Tower Society, 1991: 101-2). The elders are assisted by ministerial servants who INSTITUTIONAL AUTHORITY AND are recommended by the elders; both elders and INDIVIDUAL CONSCIENCE ministerial servants serve voluntarily. All baptized members are considered ordained In their organization the Jehovah’s Witnesses ministers, although only a few serve as full-time follow what is said to be the pattern of the administrators and “pioneers,” or full-time Christian congregation of the first century. Since evangelists (Watch Tower Society 1986: 12-13). the early 1970s, they have been directed by a Usually 18-25 congregations are grouped in a Governing Body, which determines doctrinal, circuit and assemble twice a year for “circuit legislative and judicial matters for them. The assemblies” or conventions. Once a year, larger Governing Body consists of a small group of district conventions bring together a number of elderly men who hope to join Christ in heaven circuits in a program based on the spiritual as members of the 144,000 of Revelation needs of Jehovah’s Witnesses worldwide with chapters 7 and 14. Members of the Governing respect to their preaching work and moral Body do not consider themselves to be infallible, concerns. but all Jehovah’s Witnesses are expected to obey Worldwide, Witness congregations are their dictates on pain of excommunication. The organized to cover their local area systematically Governing Body supervises the Society’s publi- with the preaching of “the good news of God’s cations and appoints a Branch Committee of Kingdom” as presented in the Christian three or more men in each of the 111 branches Scriptures. So that such witnessing is done in an of the worldwide movement. These committees orderly fashion, the local branch office of the appoint congregational elders and ministerial Watch Tower Society assigns an area to every servants and supervise activities in the more congregation. The congregation divides that area than two hundred countries in which the into smaller portions, which are then assigned to THE PARK RIDGE CENTER 3 members who take the responsibility of rigid demands imposed on members by their contacting people with the Witnesses’ message. tradition may have accounted for many of the Since World War II the movement has grown nearly 1,000,000 desertions from the movement rapidly.