EffectsEffects ofof E-EnforcementE-Enforcement inin thethe NetherlandsNetherlands MARIEKE KOOPMANS-VAN BERLO AND HANS DE BRUIJN ©PHOTODISC ecent decades have It seems likely that governments This article is based on our seen the emergence of worldwide will increasingly adopt research into the effects of two “e-enforcement” – the forms of e-enforcement. According- forms of second generation e- use of electronic tools ly, we considered research that cen- enforcement: the digital tacho- in law enforcement. ters on the impact and effects of such graph and ‘Weigh in Motion’ RIn some sectors, such tools have been measures to be of great importance. (WIM). The digital tachograph common for some time, as in the use Much is already known about the replaces the analog tachograph in of cameras to prevent red light run- functioning of the first generation of all heavy goods vehicles within the ning and speed violations. e-enforcement. Various studies con- European Union. The equipment These traditional forms of e- clude that, while there is some oppo- registers drivers’ driving and rest enforcement (“automated enforce- sition on the part of motorists, the e- times. Weigh in Motion with Video ment,” “photo enforcement”) have a enforcement measures have (WIM-Vid) is a system involving limited function: to produce photo- generally been well received and are sensors in the road and cameras, graphic evidence of relatively sim- considered successful. However, lit- which detect and register overload- ple offenses. Recently, however, tle is yet known about second gener- ing of heavy goods vehicles. The several new initiatives have been ation e-enforcement. Therefore we WIM-Vid system was developed developed, which we shall term focus here on e-enforcement’s func- and implemented in the Nether- “second generation e-enforcement.” tioning and effects. In particular, we lands and is currently attracting The prime characteristic of these address the question of how e- international attention. We shall new measures is that they go further enforcement affects the relationship compare the situation prior to the than merely recording the offense, between the regulating authority introduction of these e-enforce- and can be used to address more (i.e., the enforcement official) and ment measures to the situation after complex violations. the regulatee. the introduction of e-enforcement. 38 | 0278-0079/06/$20.00©2006IEEE IEEE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY MAGAZINE | SPRING 2006 E-Enforcement: First and explain how to avoid prosecution each of the vehicle’s axles should be Second Generations resulting from an offense detected considered. The axle load is a com- E-enforcement, or electronic by automated enforcement mea- plicated measurement, affected by enforcement, is the use of electronic sures. The sites also publish the cur- the speed of the vehicle. The method tools in law enforcement [19]. We rent locations of mobile automated of calculating whether an offense shall distinguish between the first enforcement units and advertise has been committed differs accord- and second generations of e- devices that claim to prevent a cam- ing to the type of goods vehicle and enforcement. era from clearly photographing a the applicable regulations. In the The first generation of e-enforce- license plate [10]. E-enforcement case of driving times regulations, the ment tools provided means of “auto- has the potential to allow a “zero calculation relies on the combination mated enforcement.” The three most tolerance” approach to be adopted of driving time, rest time, and the common forms of automated [24]. In the words of Bovens and type of activities conducted when enforcement [10] involve the use of Zouridis [6]: “Information and stationary. This calculation is a com- cameras to enforce existing laws Communication Technology makes plex one: various configurations of against red light running [8], [10], it possible to perfect the legality of driving and rest times can constitute [16], [17], [19], [22] [24], speed the execution in the extreme.” a violation, while a deficit of rest violations [10], [23], and entering time within a certain period can be railway crossings when the gates are Notable Characteristics compensated in another. down [10], [15]. Other examples of What are the main characteristics of A second characteristic of first e-enforcement mentioned only the first generation of e-enforce- generation e-enforcement is that the briefly in the literature involve the ment, and what differences are to be systems record incidental viola- enforcement of laws against failure found in the second generation? tions, at one moment in time at one to pay tolls, high-occupancy vehicle Table I presents the most significant particular location. Second genera- lane violations, tailgating and differences. (The table and its sub- tion e-enforcement is concerned aggressive driving, electronic toll sequent notes are based on the two with structural, ongoing illegal collection systems, and remote forms of second generation e- behavior. The systems monitor the sensing of vehicle emissions [4], enforcement measures examined behavior of regulatees through time [5], [10], [21]. during the current research.) and at various locations and collate Automated enforcement is now The first notable characteristic of the observations. in large-scale use throughout the the first generation is that enforce- The WIM system comprises a world. Bochner [5] reports that ment takes place on the basis of a number of measuring points at vari- automated enforcement is in place single behavioral variable: has the ous locations. Each is connected to in over 75 countries. The literature regulatee jumped a red light or not? the others. Readings from the vari- on automated traffic enforcement, Has the regulatee exceeded the ous locations, taken at various mainly concerning red light running speed limit or not? The conclusion moments in time, are combined to and speeding, shows a positive pic- automatically follows from the mea- produce an integrated picture for ture for enforcement possibilities. surement. The second generation each regulatee. Similarly, the digital Automated traffic enforcement has concerns a combination of behav- tachograph is permanently installed proven very effective in reducing ioral variables, whereupon a conclu- in the vehicle, and is thus able to violations and accidents [8], [15], sion can be drawn only after analy- register the driver’s behavior on an [16], [17], [19], [24]. When sis and calculations. The situations ongoing basis. Wissinger, Hummer et al. [24] are more complex. Thirdly, the first generation asked focus groups to name positive In the case of Weigh in Motion, records “first order information,” aspects of automated camera for example, not only the weight of which serves only to record the enforcement, responses included the total load, but also the load on specific violation. Enforcement is personnel savings, constant moni- toring, and the ability to help con- trol crime and violations. Red light Table I cameras are strongly supported by Comparison Of First And Second Generation E-Enforcement Measures public opinion [24]. However, there First generation e-enforcement Second generation e-enforcement are exceptions. Some authors state that motorists oppose the introduc- One dimensional Multi-dimensional tion of automated traffic enforce- Incidental Structural ment and have attempted to influ- Geared towards individual offenses: Geared towards patterns: second order ence politicians [4], [21]. Various first order information information web sites exist on which opponents IEEE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY MAGAZINE | SPRING 2006 | 39 confined to the individual offender enforcement official and regula- adopt the behavior concerned, and the individual offense. Second tee. Sometimes this process is nec- avoiding controls, complying with generation e-enforcement tools are essary because the regulatee is the letter but not with the spirit of the able to aggregate data, whereupon ignorant of the law. Sometimes, it law and so on [9], [13]. attention shifts from enforcement is necessary because the regulatee As stated earlier, research into at the individual level to that at the is in a position of power and the the first generation of e-enforce- ment measures reveals a degree of opposition. Regulatees develop Automated enforcement strategies to elude prosecution; is now in large-scale use they avoid known locations of automated enforcement units, or throughout the world. use devices to prevent a camera clearly photographing their vehi- collective level. The “second order relationship between enforcement cle’s license plate. Nevertheless, information” can be used to assess official and regulatee is therefore the first generation of e-enforce- risks, set priorities, identify pat- interdependent. ment is regarded as having been terns, and plan capacity. In the sanction style, informa- successful and effective. To our The digital tachograph links data tion is crucial. Provided the knowledge, current research has relating to the driving and rest times enforcement official has correct not yet explored the success of sec- to the individual driver, and records information concerning the regula- ond generation e-enforcement. We background information that will tee’s behavior, he can take the address the specific question of enable the relevant authority to appropriate action. E-enforcement what influence second generation establish, say, the context of an acci- is attractive in this situation, in