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To request permissions please use the Feedback form on our webpage. http://researchspace.auckland.ac.nz/feedback General copyright and disclaimer In addition to the above conditions, authors give their consent for the digital copy of their work to be used subject to the conditions specified on the Library Thesis Consent Form and Deposit Licence. Dynamics of Agricultural Development in Prehistoric Samoa: The Case of Ofu Island Seth Quintus A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology, The University of Auckland, 2015 Abstract Agricultural development is intimately tied to the environment and cultural practices, specifically socio-political change. Nowhere are these relationships more clear than on Polynesian islands. Many sequences of agricultural change have now been documented in the region, and their relationships with the environment and cultural change assessed. Most, if not all, of these identified sequences have been described as processes of intensification. Samoan agricultural systems, however, are vastly under researched archaeologically, creating a serious gap in archaeological knowledge of the archipelago. Land use practices in the archipelago are often thought to have been non-intensive, and the assumed prehistoric sequence, built using ethnographic analogy, has been utilized to argue that the process of intensification was not inevitable on all Polynesian high islands. To address this gap, and to determine the nature of agricultural development in the Samoan Archipelago, this thesis examines agricultural development on Ofu Island in the Manu’a Group of American Samoa. Archaeological research was carried out over the course of two field seasons at three locations on the island, two in the interior uplands (A’ofa and Tufu) and one of the coast (Ofu Village). Results of this field work were utilized to critically explore questions relating to agricultural development on Ofu, specifically how that development can be described and which factors influenced the development. These results suggest that agricultural intensification did occur on the island at some scales of analysis, but alternative processes, such as expansion and innovation, were of great importance. The development of production was impacted by multiple factors, including landscape evolution, the spatial variability of the environment, and socio-political change. This thesis documents how, on one small island, agricultural change resulted in complex socio-political negotiations beyond individual producers, which resulted in a small-scale political economy. This research contributes at three levels, the local, regional, and theoretical. At the local level, this research fills a serious gap by documenting an agricultural sequence in the Samoan archipelago. At the regional level, this research provides another case study as to the different factors that influence agricultural development in Polynesia. At the theoretical level, this research highlights the multiple paths of agricultural development. Agricultural development is a process imbedded in history, impacted by multiple factors, individuals, and groups. II Acknowledgements Several individuals contribute to the research process that creates one person’s Ph.D. Through the rollercoaster that is graduate studies, I have been particularly lucky to have had the sustained support of my supervisors, family, and friends. I will surely leave out individuals that deserve to be thanked, but I will try to cover the various ways in which I have been helped along the way. I wish to thank my mom Kris, my dad Terry, my brother Brennan, and my sister Mariah. You never wavered in the support of my aspirations to be an archaeologist, and you always motivated me to do the best I could do, especially in academics. Living in a family of teachers has also helped me find my place. I was lucky to have your support through this whole process, especially when I needed people to talk to during the more stressful periods of graduate studies. This research would not have been possible without the advice, support, encouragement, and dedicated hard work of Melinda Allen, Thegn Ladefoged, and Jeffrey Clark. I know I was incredibly lucky to have three very supportive and successful advisors who would make time to talk to me about archaeology. They put up with my unbridled energy and excitement during the positive swings in the process, and built me up through the more negative events. I learned how to be a successful researcher through their constant questioning of my interpretations and underlying assumptions. They constantly asked me to go beyond good enough, which meshed with my desire and ambition. The hours of reading and editing that they spent on my work truly paid off for my professional development, and for that I will be eternally grateful. Somehow, Jeff, you have stayed with me since my first year as an undergraduate. Thank you all for believing in me. For support in the field and permissions to work on the island of Ofu and their land specifically, I extend my thanks to High Chief Misa’alefua Hudson, Manu’a Rep. Toeaina Faufano Autele, Eleloi Misa’alefua, Apelu Malae, Alisana Malae, and Ele’ele Utuone. I also acknowledge the efforts and help of American Samoa Historic Preservation officer David Herdrich, National Park Service ranger Carlo Caruso, and the Malae family of the Va’oto Lodge (Marjorie Malae, Jim Malae, Debra Malae, and Ben McDonough). Fieldwork would not have been possible without the aid of many archaeologists, particularly those from the island and those who took part in field schools: Wayne (So’o) Eliu, Nouata Malae, Ricky Misa’alefua, Carrie Fagerland, Nathan Smith, Allison Aakre, Clayton Knudson, III Amber Schneider, Visesio Gogo Hope Sakaria, Rachel Giesler, and Jeremy Ahlers. Not only did these individuals make the project feasible, but they made it much more fun. The ideas expressed in this document are an outcome of conversations with many people. Peter Sheppard, Stephanie Day, Donald Schwert, Judith Huntsman, Janet Davidson, David Addison, Alex Morrison, and Ethan Cochrane all aided to improve the quality of this thesis through advice and discussion. The support I received from these individuals is something that will be very difficult to give back. Special mention must be made of my fellow Ph.D. students, who helped me through the ups and downs of the process. While not all can be mentioned by name, special acknowledgement must be made to a few. Gerard O’Regan kept me balanced through very long conversations about connections between historical anthropology and archaeology. Maybe now that I am gone, you can get some work done. Mara Mulrooney and Charlotte Warner helped me through the Ph.D. process with their gracious friendship and constant encouragement. Finally, this work would not have been possible without the financial support of the University of Auckland through the Doctoral Research Fund (PReSS), the Doctoral Scholarship, and the Faculty of Arts Doctoral Research Fund. Minor funding was also provided by grants from the National Science Foundation (BCS-1260909) and NASA. IV Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1 Agricultural Development ..................................................................................................... 3 Polynesian Islands as Case Studies ........................................................................................ 3 The Research Problem ........................................................................................................... 5 Aims of this Study ................................................................................................................. 5 Structure of Thesis ................................................................................................................. 7 Chapter 2: Understanding Agricultural Development ............................................................... 9 Perspectives on Changing Agricultural Systems ................................................................... 9 Variability of Agricultural Development in Polynesia ........................................................ 20 Research Design................................................................................................................... 36 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................ 40 Chapter 3: The Samoan Socio-Ecological Setting ................................................................... 41 Climate and Physical Environment .....................................................................................