Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies An evaluation of wastewater storage and treatment reservoirs performances, (based on a survey of reservoirs constructed by the “JNF”). Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of “Master of Arts” By: Ofir kfir Date: April 2010 Dedicated to my beloved Mother, which by her maternal insight knew to inspire me towards embarking on this journey. “ ואד יעלה מן הארץ והשקה את כל פני האדמה ; ונהר יצא מעדן להשקות את הגן ” ( בראשית ב' ). Acknowledgments First and foremost I thank the Jewish National Fund for their financial support and administrative assistance. People who require special mention are Avry Kadmon, Moshe Cohen and the other members of the Jewish National Fund Land Development Division. Further, I recognize that this research would not have been possible without the financial support of the Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research (ZIWR), Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research (BIDR), Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, and express my gratitude to this Institute. I thank my supervisors at the BIDR, Prof. Alon Tal and Prof. Eilon Adar. Their guidance focused me on worthwhile investigative paths, and at the same time allowed me the independence to conduct the exploration of these paths. A very special thanks goes out to Dr. Amit Gross from the department of environmental hydrology and microbiology for taking time out from his busy schedule and sharing his expertise with understanding and patience. The reservoirs operators: Paul Toff, Dimitry Livshich, Mordehay Rubin and Amram Dahan, deserve my sincere expression of gratitude for their ongoing cooperation and assistance during one year of monthly monitoring and sampling. I thank Ofer Guy for his guidance and assistance with the laboratory analyses. I also thank Dr. Ludmilla Katz for assisting greatly with the plasma emission spectroscopy analysis for the determination of major and trace elements. I acknowledge Ariel Cohen and Dina Fiman from the “Israel nature and parks authority”, research and surveys division, for allowing me the access to data regarding wastewater reservoirs static features and wastewater qualities, at the outset of this study. I thank my friends, Dror “Tzuzi”, Yael and Ayala Pirimin, the Saar family and Roi and Dorit Hayun, for their warm and rustic hospitality during my occasional visits to northern Israel. Finally, my deepest appreciation goes out to my lovely Hadar, the most beautiful women in my life, who managed to endure me all along the way and by that alone contributed to this research in innumerable ways. Table of contents ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................... 9 1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 12 2. SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND............................................................................................. 14 2.1 Global water scarcity...........................................................................................................................................14 2.2 Water resources management in Israel .............................................................................................................14 2.2.1 Water scarcity in Israel...................................................................................................................................14 2.2.2 Water consumption in Israel...........................................................................................................................15 2.2.3 Wastewater reuse in Israel..............................................................................................................................16 2.3 Wastewater reclamation and reuse....................................................................................................................17 2.3.1 Reusing wastewater for agricultural irrigation ...............................................................................................18 2.3.2 Wastewater irrigation in Israel .......................................................................................................................18 2.3.3 JNF’s work in alleviating the ongoing water crisis ........................................................................................19 2.4 Wastewater composition and quality requirements .........................................................................................19 2.4.1 Wastewater composition ................................................................................................................................19 2.4.2 Wastewater quality regulations ......................................................................................................................20 2.4.2.1 Wastewater quality regulations evolution in Israel ................................................................................21 2.5 Sewage treatment processes................................................................................................................................23 2.5.1 Pretreatment ...................................................................................................................................................23 2.5.2 Primary treatment...........................................................................................................................................23 2.5.3 Secondary treatment.......................................................................................................................................23 2.5.3.1 Extensive/Natural processes ...................................................................................................................24 2.5.3.2 Intensive/Mechanical processes..............................................................................................................25 2.5.3.3 Semi-intensive processes.........................................................................................................................25 2.5.4 Tertiary treatment...........................................................................................................................................26 2.5.5 Constructed wetlands .....................................................................................................................................27 2.6 Wastewater storage and treatment reservoirs (WSTRs) .................................................................................28 2.6.1 Quality improvement through storage............................................................................................................29 2.6.2 WSTRs operation and design considerations .................................................................................................30 2.6.2.1 Operational regime.................................................................................................................................30 2.6.2.2 Design parameters ..................................................................................................................................34 2.6.3 WSTR sampling .............................................................................................................................................35 2.7 Wastewater irrigation environmental effects....................................................................................................36 2.7.1 Effects on soil.................................................................................................................................................36 2.7.2 Effects on Aquifers and groundwater.............................................................................................................37 2.7.3 Effects on crops and agricultural practices.....................................................................................................39 2 2.8 Research Objectives ............................................................................................................................................40 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................................................................... 41 3.1 Study area.............................................................................................................................................................41 3.2 Stage one – WSTR cross monitoring..................................................................................................................42 3.2.1 WSTR static data collection ...........................................................................................................................42 3.2.2 Cross monitoring procedure ...........................................................................................................................42 3.2.3 Sample handling.............................................................................................................................................43 3.3 Stage two - WSTRs time scale monitoring ........................................................................................................43 3.3.1 WSTRs selection for the time scale monitoring.............................................................................................43 3.3.2 Time scale monitoring procedure...................................................................................................................44