Deep seabed mining A rising environmental challenge Luc Cuyvers, Whitney Berry, Kristina Gjerde, Torsten Thiele and Caroline Wilhem INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE About IUCN IUCN is a membership Union uniquely composed of both government and civil society organisations. It provides public, private and non-governmental organisations with the knowledge and tools that enable human progress, economic development and nature conservation to take place together. Created in 1948, IUCN is now the world’s largest and most diverse environmental network, harnessing the knowledge, resources and reach of more than 1,300 Member organisations and some 10,000 experts. It is a leading provider of conservation data, assessments and analysis. Its broad membership enables IUCN to fill the role of incubator and trusted repository of best practices, tools and international standards. IUCN provides a neutral space in which diverse stakeholders including governments, NGOs, scientists, businesses, local communities, indigenous peoples organisations and others can work together to forge and implement solutions to environmental challenges and achieve sustainable development. Working with many partners and supporters, IUCN implements a large and diverse portfolio of conservation projects worldwide. Combining the latest science with the traditional knowledge of local communities, these projects work to reverse habitat loss, restore ecosystems and improve people’s well-being. www.iucn.org http://twitter.com/IUCN/ Deep seabed mining A rising environmental challenge Deep seabed mining A rising environmental challenge Luc Cuyvers, Whitney Berry, Kristina Gjerde, Torsten Thiele and Caroline Wilhem The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or other participating organisations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or other participating organisations. Published by: IUCN, Gland Switzerland, in collaboration with Gallifrey Foundation. Copyright: © 2018 IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder. Citation: Cuyvers, L., Berry, W., Gjerde, K., Thiele, T. and Wilhem, C. (2018). Deep seabed mining: a rising environmental challenge. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN and Gallifrey Foundation. x + 74pp. Cover photo: Left: Lost City pinnacle. See p. 46. Courtesy D. Kelley and M. Elend, University of Washington, Upper Right: A deep-sea lizardfish (Bathysaurus) at a depth of just over 2,000m. Courtesy NOAA. Lower right: Giant tube worms (Riftia pachyptila), East Pacific Rise. See p. 18. Courtesy NOAA. ISBN: 978-2-8317-1921-4 (PDF) 978-2-8317-1922-1 (print version) DOI: https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.CH.2018.16.en Executive Editor: John Vermilye, Gallifrey Foundation Project Manager: Alexis McGivern, IUCN & Gallifrey Foundation Graphics: Regis L’Hostis by Reg Graphics Layout by: Imre Sebestyén Jr. / Unit Graphics Available from: IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Global Marine and Polar Programme (GMPP) Rue Mauverney 28 1196 Gland Switzerland Tel +41 22 999 0000 Fax +41 22 999 0002 [email protected] www.iucn.org/resources/publications Contents Acknowledgements. .vi Foreword . .vii Summary . viii 1. INTRODUCTION. 1 A brief history . 1 Challenges. 3 Bibliography. 4 2. THE GEOLOGY OF DEEP-SEA MINERALS. .5 Principles of plate tectonics . 6 Polymetallic nodules . 7 Polymetallic crusts . 9 Seafloor massive sulphide deposits. 10 Bibliography. 13 3. DEEP-SEA ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY. 15 Abyssal plain ecosystems . 15 Seamount ecosystems. 17 Hydrothermal vent ecosystems . 18 Back-arc basin ecosystems . .20 Bibliography. 20 4. DEEP-SEA MINERAL EXTRACTION . 23 Polymetallic nodule recovery . 23 Polymetallic crust recovery from seamounts . 24 Polymetallic sulphide recovery . 25 Bibliography. .27 5. THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK . 29 A brief history . 29 The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) . 32 The continental shelf. 33 National regulation of deep-sea mining. 34 International regulation of deep-sea mining. 34 Bibliography. 36 6. THE ECONOMICS OF DEEP-SEA MINING. 39 The financial cost of deep-sea mining. 39 The societal cost of deep seabed mining . .41 The economic benefits of deep-sea mining. .42 The societal benefits of deep-sea mining . ..