SCALE AND IMPACT OF THE ILLEGAL LEOPARD SKIN TRADE FOR TRADITIONAL USE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA Vincent Norman Naude A thesis presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa Department of Biological Sciences University of Cape Town March 2020 University of Cape Town Dr Jacqueline M. Bishop Dr Guy A. Balme Prof. M. Justin O’Riain Supervisor Co-supervisor Co-supervisor ICWild Panthera ICWild University of Cape Town University of Cape Town University of Cape Town Rondebosch 7701 Rondebosch 7701 Rondebosch 7701 South Africa South Africa South Africa [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University of Cape Town For Indiana and all those with wild hearts… DECLARATION I Vincent Norman Naude, hereby declare that the work on which this thesis is based is my original work (except where acknowledgements indicate otherwise) and that neither the whole work nor any part of it has been, is being, or is to be submitted for another degree in this or any other university. My MSc was upgraded to a PhD by the Doctoral Degrees Board of the University of Cape Town in February 2017 and has been included in this thesis and described as such. I am presenting this thesis for examination toward the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Biological Sciences. I hereby acknowledge that this work was conducted as part of a larger, ongoing collaboration between the Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa (iCWild) and Panthera at the University of Cape Town, South Africa. My fieldwork and data collection there thus conducted alongside and with the support of their staff (Tristan Dickerson, Morgan Kudzwayo, Gareth Whittington Jones, Jeffery Dunnink, Guy Balme) and students (Xolani Mabaso and Nolwazi Mongwa). This thesis has been submitted to the Turnitin module, and I confirm that my supervisors have seen my report and that any concerns raised therefrom have been resolved between myself and my supervisors. I empower the university to reproduce for research either the whole or any portion of the contents in any manner whatsoever. Name: Vincent Norman Naude Student number: NDXVIN017 Signed: Date: 30th March 2020 - i - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am deeply grateful to my supervisor Dr Jacqueline Bishop, who has always seen and fostered the inquisitive naturalist in me. Her vast philosophical insight and patience in teaching sincere respect for the values of science have been crucial in moulding my perspective and experiences. Thank you for the hours of edits, tea-break rants and having my back, especially when I’m wrong and need to learn from it. I am forever indebted to my co-supervisor Dr Guy Balme, who has kindly steered my hand through the complexities of the NGO world. I remain inspired by his profound knowledge of felids and passion for eliciting genuine change in their conservation, from an article, through policy to fences and changing the perspectives of individuals. For his ever-infectious alacrity, patience and never-ending support, I am thankful to my co-supervisor and academic mentor Prof Justin O’Riain. By forever entrusting me with responsibilities beyond my position and teaching me how to teach others, he has inspired me toward a life-long academic career. Thank you, Justin, for having my back, for teaching me that humanity and humility are more important than being right and for showing me that patience and discretion will always be in your favour. Thank you for joining the team, I would not have been able to do it without your support. My friends through some of the most tumultuous moments of the PhD journey and never so much as wavering on a sarcastic comment, gut-wrenching laughter or a strong (often statistically inclined) shoulder, I am forever grateful to the iCWild’lings of our lab. To the old guard (Matty, Nokes and Marine) thank you for not judging my stupid life questions, being an inspiration and sending a flare from the end of the tunnel. Matty, your determination and consistency remain and inspiration in work and in life. Noakes, the lab’s crazy cool older sister, thank you for teaching me not to take any of it too seriously and that you can be a fantastic, passionate scientist and a warm, kind person all wrapped up in one. Marine, I am so excited to continue working with you. You are 100% stubborn and passionate conservationist, I have always admired that, but more so that you are kind, supportive and approachable no matter how high you climb without even noticing, you truly are an inspiration. To the gang (Rogan, Lucy, Tumbleweed, Jos, Miky, Michelle, Gabi and Laurel)… who would have thought that any of us would EVER have gotten to this point? It truly has been a long road, and I am so proud to have walked it with you riffraff. Thank you for the interesting lab lunches, crazy pub sessions and the endless support through every day of PhD. I could not - ii - have asked for a better lab family, you really are an inspiring group of young scientists and I hope to keep seeing much more of everyone as their careers evolve. I would especially like to thank Rogan and Lucy, you have dear friends throughout this long journey and have always been there with a shoulder whenever I needed it more than ever, thank you. To my PhD comrades (Woodgate, Typhoid and Tammy)… Da! This is time of much honour and celebration, I am thanking you greatly for your comradery and support in PhD Gulag. These LADS made it all worthwhile. You are a ridiculous bunch of crazy, hilarious, and all-round incredible scientists…thank you for everything. I would especially like to thank High Commander Tammy, for quickly becoming a genuine friend and patient housemate. I would like to thank the Panthera clan old and new (GMann, RossP, Joleen, Shannon, Lauren, Valentine, Philip) for the incredible work that they do to keep this world-changing organisation afloat, with wit, broad smiles and laughter through every day, even though the gritty, especially tough ones when what we do feels a bit hopeless. You are the cogs that make it all work, you are inspiring, and I would be honoured to continue working alongside you. This work and its success would not be possible without those on the ground, I would like to thank Tristan, Jones, Nolwasi, Maswabi, Xolani, all the Shembe participants and our collaborators across southern Africa who believe in this work and who continue to work tirelessly to help us bring it to fruition. Special thanks to Dr Georgia Schafer, Dr Vivienne Williams, Dr Peter Coals, Francois Becker, Ellie Armstrong, Dr Julien Fattebert, Dr Rob Ogden and Dr Luke Hunter. You have and for as long as we continue to work together will continue to make a better scientist, conservationist and person, each in your own subtle way, thank you. To my funders throughout this long journey (the Sam Cohen, Mandela Rhodes and National Research Foundations, Panthera and iCWild), thank you for your support. To my new family (PB, Jenny, Jess, Jon, Amy, Mike, Elliot, Francis, Ben, Harry, Doris and Lizzie), thank you for your endless support and warm-hearted understanding, for the family braais and fishing trips and for your love and kindness. To my parents Edgar and Su Naude, thank you for believing in me, for fostering in me a deep love of nature and for inspiring my dreams, I could not have asked for more loving and supportive parents. Finally, to my partner in life, love and crime - Melissa (Drew and Pan included of course), thank you for everything. Thank you for hours of edits and endless nights of coffee and writing readthroughs, for filling thousands of sampling tubes in our tiny flat and typing while I dictate on long-drives. You are the most incredible person I know, and I would never have gotten this far without you. - iii - TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................ 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 3 1.1 General introduction ................................................................................................... 4 1.2 Felids under threat ...................................................................................................... 6 1.2.1 Conflict with humans .......................................................................................... 6 1.2.2 Trophy hunting .................................................................................................... 8 1.2.3 Snaring and by-catch ........................................................................................ 10 1.2.4 Illegal wildlife trade .......................................................................................... 11 1.3 Big cats shape our culture and tradition ................................................................... 12 1.3.1 The allure of felid fur ........................................................................................ 12 1.3.2 Traditional Asian medicine ............................................................................... 16 1.3.3 African religion, spiritualism, and traditional