A Broker of International Reconciliation: UNICEF Through the Korean and Vietnam Wars A Thesis Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree MASTER OF ARTS By Christopher J. Dever August, 2010 Thesis Approvals: Dr. William I. Hitchcock, Thesis Advisor, History Dr. Rita Krueger, History ABSTRACT This paper represents original research in the UNICEF archives and illuminates the case study of this particular intergovernmental organization (IGO) during the period of the Korean War through the Vietnam War (1948-1975). It investigates the complex issues raised by the intersection of power politics and humanitarian impartiality. It argues that historians must take intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) and international non- governmental organizations (INGOs) seriously in their attempt to accurately interpret the historical record. The story of UNICEF during the Korean War charts a familiar narrative where superpower rivalries served to derail the good intentions of this purportedly impartial intergovernmental organization. However, the case study of UNICEF in Vietnam is a surprising example of the rising influence and impact of IGOs and INGOs on the international scene. By balancing its associations across the East-West divide and riding a wave of increasingly international sentiment worldwide, UNICEF navigated a treacherous political arena and realized new heights of its goal of impartiality even before the cessation of war in Vietnam. In a dramatic show of their expanding influence, UNICEF played a pivotal role in improving relations between the United Nations and North Vietnam. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Like most endeavors in life this paper would not have been completed without the assistance of a number of kind people. Special thanks to Upasana Young and Edwin Ramirez who graciously assisted me during my multiple trips to the UNICEF archives in Queens, NY. Special thanks also to my thesis advisor Dr. William Hitchcock, who’s pointed observations and consistent encouragement energized this process to the end. Many thanks to Dr. Rita Krueger for her willingness to serve on my Masters committee on short notice. Finally, thanks and love to my wife Jessica who put up with this endeavor during the first year of our marriage and provided unwavering support until its completion. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...............................................................................................iii CHAPTER 1. A WORLD UNITED ...................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Historiography................................................................................................... 2 2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF UNICEF.................................................................................. 8 The Origins of International Organizations ...................................................... 8 The Roots of Special IGO ............................................................................... 10 3. UNICEF DURING THE KOREAN WAR: 1948-1953................................................ 13 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 13 UNICEF before the War in Korea................................................................... 13 UNICEF during the War in Korea .................................................................. 18 Conclusions..................................................................................................... 26 4. A WORLD IN TRANSITION ...................................................................................... 29 5. UNICEF VIETNAM IN THE EARLY YEARS: 1948-1960....................................... 32 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 32 The Early Years............................................................................................... 33 6. UNICEF VIETNAM IN THE SIXTIES ....................................................................... 39 7. UNUSUAL SUCCESS: UNICEF VIETNAM IN THE LAST YEARS OF THE WAR: 1970-1975...................................................................................................................... 56 8. CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................... 66 WORKS CITED................................................................................................................ 74 iv CHAPTER 1: A WORLD UNITED Introduction At 6:00 am on 2 May 1975, an unexpected scene was unfolding in the capital of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN). A government car with two Vietnamese- made UN flags was delivering UNICEF representative Jacques Beaumont to a stadium in Hanoi. Here in this stadium, just days after the final evacuation of the U.S. from South Vietnam, Beaumont was introduced as the representative of the UN system in front of the entire diplomatic corps 1. The government of North Vietnam, which had long eschewed all relations public or private with the United Nations, was now publicly recognizing a member of this organization that had previously been intimately associated with an anti- Communist and U.S. dominated agenda. This was not mere political theater either, for shortly thereafter the DRVN began its bid to become an official member of the United Nations. So what was it that helped to affect such a significant change in the attitude of the DRVN towards the United Nations? This paper argues that the diligent work of UNICEF in both the North and South of Vietnam combined with a tenacious drive for improved relationships with the DRVN government played a pivotal role in bringing this transformation to pass. The story of UNICEF in Korea and Vietnam demonstrates the transformation of this organization from a struggling aid organization to a significant broker of international goodwill. While the realities of war and politics seriously 1 Volkmann, C.S. A History of Unicef in Vietnam . Expanded # CF-RAI-USAA-DBOI-HS-2005-00146 External ID HST-1975 Vietnam Sep Container CF/RA/BX/ED/X/1975/T053 Administrative and working files Indoc. Date Registered 7/21/2005. Page 21. 1 hampered UNICEF’S work on the ground during both of these wars, this account charts the creation and realization of a unique space from which UNICEF would pursue its impartial mission in the war zone. Historiography The most extensive work on UNICEF can be found in Maggie Black’s two books entitled The Children and the Nations (1987) 2 and Children First (1996) 3. Almost encyclopedic in their presentation, these UNICEF-sponsored works provide biographical information about the organization over the years. While helpful in establishing background information, Black’s sweeping overview does not necessarily incorporate UNICEF into the broader sweep of social and political history. Yves Beigbeder’s New Challenges for UNICEF (2001) 4, represents another survey which seeks to “present in a relatively brief form some of the important events in the agency’s life, its main programmes, the challenges and problems faced and what solutions, if any, were found.” Beigbeder writes from the critical stance of the historian and seeks to illuminate both positive and negative realities within the organization. Issues of interagency rivalry, politics and funding play alongside the general analysis. In this way Beigbeder’s work constitutes an attempt to begin to place UNICEF into the broader historical context. Jennifer Morris’ dissertation entitled The Origins of UNICEF 1946-1953 (2004) 5 examines the founding of UNICEF and its place in the postwar world. Morris claims that 2 Black, M. (1987). The Children and the Nations . Australasia: Macmillan. 3 Black, M. (1996). Children First. Australasia: Macmillan. 2 UNICEF’s unique situation as an apolitical philanthropic organization “provides a unique perspective from which to forge links between the political, economic and social histories of the postwar period.” In her work Morris specifically focuses on the issue of what UNICEF programs reveal about ideas of the postwar family. She concludes that gender roles and expectations were fully incorporated into how aid eligibility was determined. Christian Salazar Volkmann’s work entitled A History of UNICEF in Vietnam (2005) is a more personal account of the work of UNICEF in Vietnam and claims the designation of memoire. Volkmann utilizes a variety of sources but primarily represents UNICEF Vietnam as seen “through the testimonies of several generations of professionals who worked for and with UNICEF in Vietnam with only one aim: to improve the life of Vietnamese children and women.”6 This “eyewitness” account augmented my research and served to confirm my conclusions. While the literature on international organizations is far from extensive, it is not without precedent. First published in 1916, Leonard Woolf’s International Government 7 explored the possibilities of creating international authority and preventing war. He emphasized the rapid growth of organized international relations during the first half of the century and saw this as the evidence of an internal dynamic that was taking place in