NC STATE UNIVERSITY BioResources, a peer-reviewed journal College of Natural Resources devoted to the science of lignocellulosic Department of Wood and Paper Science materials, chemicals, and applications Campus Box 8005 Raleigh, NC 27695-8005 919.515.7707/919.513.3022 919.515.6302 (fax) B i o R e s o u r c e s Contents: Vol. 2, Issue 3, August 2007 Hubbe, M. A. (2007). "When is a tree not a resource?" BioRes. 2(3), 332-333. Lundquist, K., Parkås, J., Paulsson, M., and Heitner, C. (2007). "Reactions of lignin chromophores of the enal and enone type with sulfite," BioRes. 2(3), 334-350. Law, K.-N., Wan Daud, W. R., and Ghazali, A. (2007). "Morphological and chemical nature of fiber strands of oil palm empty-fruit-bunch (OPEFB)," BioRes. 2(3), 351-362. Bălaş, A., and Popa, V. I. (2007). "The influence of natural aromatic compounds on the development of Lycopersicon esculentum plantlets," BioRes. 2(3), 363-370. Wang, B., and Sain, M. (2007). "The effect of chemically coated nanofiber reinforcement on biopolymer based nanocomposites," BioRes. 2(3), 371-388. Yao, R., Qi, B., Deng, S., Liu, N., Peng, S., and Cui, Q. (2007). "Use of surfactants in enzymatic hydrolysis of rice straw and lactic acid production from rice straw by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation," BioRes. 2(3), 389-398. Mocchiutti, P., and Zanuttini, M. A. (2007). "Key considerations in the determination of polyelectrolyte concentration by the colloidal titration method," BioRes. 2(3), 399-407. Nenkova, S. (2007). "Study of sorption properties of lignin-derived fibrous composites for the remediation of oil polluted receiving waters," BioRes. 2(3), 408-418. Qi, B., and Yao, R. (2007). "L-lactic acid production from Lactobacillus casei by solid state fermentation using rice straw," BioRes. 2(3), 419-429. Thomas, R., Singh, S. P., and Subrahmanyam, S. V. (2007)."A study on oxygen delignification of melocanna baccifera (muli bamboo) kraft pulp," BioRes. 2(3), 430-441. Vainio, A. K., and Paulapuro, H. (2007). "Interfiber bonding and fiber segment activation in paper," BioRes. 2(3), 442-458. Parasuraman, P., Singh, R., Bolton, T. S., Omori, S., and Francis, R. C. (2007). "Estimation of hardwood lignin concentrations by UV spectroscopy and chlorine demethylation," BioRes. 2(3), 459-471. Taherdazeh, M. J., and Karimi, K. (2007). "Acid-based hydrolysis processes for ethanol from lignocellulosic materials: A review," BioRes. 2(3), 472-499. Hubbe, M. A., and Heitmann, J. A. (2007). "Review of factors affecting the release of water from cellulosic fibers during paper manufacture," BioRes. 2(3), 500-533. BioResources is a peer-reviewed journal devoted to the science of lignocellulosic materials, chemicals, and applications. The journal is a service of North Carolina State University, College of Natural Resources (http://cnr.ncsu.edu). Articles can be down-loaded without charge as PDF files at www.bioresourcesjournal.com. The BioResources website is hosted by Scholarly Exchange, and articles become indexed for scholars through the Open Journal System (http://pkp.sfu.ca/). Author instructions, journal policies, an editorial board list, and article files (secondary source) can be found at http://ncsu.edu/bioresources. Correspondence should be directed to co-editors Martin A. Hubbe ([email protected], 919-513-3022) and Lucian A. Lucia ([email protected], 919-515-7707). EDITORIAL ncsu.edu/bioresources WHEN IS A TREE NOT A RESOURCE? Martin A. Hubbe Although this journal mainly considers the study of cellulosic materials as sources of structural wood, fibers, chemicals, energy, and products such as paper, it would be short-sighted to view all trees as existing in order to meet such needs. An individual tree may have multiple roles, from a human perspective. The point of this essay is that different groups of trees ought to be managed in one of four ways – as crops, as natural habitat, as an awe-inspiring heritage, as in the case of national parks, and as dear friends in our yards and along our boulevards. Keywords: Forests, Trees, Natural Resources, Habitat, Intensive forestry Contact information: Department of Forest Biomaterials Science and Engineering, College of Natural Resources, North Carolina State University, 27695-8005 USA; [email protected] TREES AND DREAMERS Trees hold a special place in the popular imagination. Maybe it’s because the lifespan of an individual tree can rival and often exceed our own. Maybe it is due to their persistence in reaching continually toward the sky without complaint. Few people admit to feeling sad when a lawnmower cuts down a dandelion or a blade of grass. But the absence of a tree, felled by lightning or a chainsaw, can weigh upon the heart of one who has grown up in its presence. Some attribute a spiritual beauty to trees. As Joyce Kilmer wrote, “I think that I shall never see a poem as lovely as a tree; a tree whose hungry mouth is prest; against the Earth’s sweet flowing breast; a tree that looks at God all day; and lifts her leafy arms to pray; a tree that may in summer wear; a nest of robins in her hair; upon whose bosom snow has lain; who intimately lives with rain; poems are made by fools like me; but only God can make a tree.” Others may be nostalgic for a simpler time. A visit to a national park sometimes can make both us and our problems feel small, awed by the shear grandeur of nature. The white pines of Acadia Park in Maine and the redwood trees of the Pacific Northwest can remind us of our humble place in the natural order of the world. TREES AS A CROP According to my dictionary, a resource is something that is “available to be used.” Since the dawn of civilization humans have become adept at the planting of crops, which can be thought of as a way to make ensure that food, as well as fibers for cloth, will be available at the time of harvest. The planters also learned of opportunities to select seeds from the more delicious fruits or the more productive fiber-bearing plants, such as cotton. Hubbe (2007). “When is a tree not a resource?” BioResources 2(3), 332-333. 332 EDITORIAL ncsu.edu/bioresources Presently, most of the food that we eat comes from intensively planted and fertilized fields. Not surprisingly, there have been recent trends towards increasing dependence on plantation forests, especially in the tropics, as a source of fiber for pulp and paper. Tropical plantations can offer a favorable combination of fiber uniformity and high rate of production per acre. TREES AS HABITAT Though plantation forests appear to be well suited to meet many of our needs for cellulosic materials, there are some needs that they do not fulfill. First and foremost is the need for biodiversity. From a strictly utilitarian sense, biodiversity can be viewed as a kind of safety net, a buffer of self-regulating biomass that contains a rich pool of genes, capable of responding to a wide range of climactic and environmental stresses, including fires and floods. Natural forests also can be a delight to visit, for instance, when we hunt, fish, and collect wild berries – returning to our pre-civilized roots as hunter-gatherers. FARM ANIMAL, SHOW ANIMAL, WILD ANIMAL, AND PET In many respects, the previous sections of this essay describe incompatible roles for the respective trees. A management style well suited for trees in a natural habitat (by analogy to the wild animal) is unlikely to be ideal for implementation in an intensively harvested forest (by analogy to the farm animal). A management style well suited for a national park (by analogy to a show animal) is unlikely to be ideal for implementation in the subdivision where you live (by analogy to the pet animal). The argument is sometimes heard that intensive forestry, using only a fraction of the available land, can make it possible to preserve natural areas, having a rich biodiversity. Others are fearful that modified species in an intensively managed forest may have potential to invade so- called natural areas. Conversely, hardy trees from the natural forest may act like “weeds,” invading and disrupting the uniformity of monoculture stands. Issues such as these suggest that well-planned management practices, rather than merely a hopeful attitude, is most likely to help meet our future needs for trees. Trees will remain prominent in people’s imaginations. We will look upon their grandeur, their beauty, their utility, and their integration into a natural web of life. We will need to employ different kinds of management styles to make the optimum usage of this natural resource. And yes, some forests deserve to be considered as part of our national heritage or as our friends; those trees may be placed off limits, i.e. not considered as a “resource” for materials, chemicals, or fuels. But they can be a resource for our spiritual well-being and the health of our natural environment. Hubbe (2007). “When is a tree not a resource?” BioResources 2(3), 332-333. 333 PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLE ncsu.edu/bioresources REACTIONS OF LIGNIN CHROMOPHORES OF THE ENAL AND ENONE TYPES WITH SULFITE Knut Lundquist,a Jim Parkås,a*† Magnus Paulsson,a‡ and Cyril Heitner b In NaHSO3-solutions of coniferaldehyde and its methyl ether (models for lignin chromophores of the cinnamaldehyde type) a dynamic equilibrium between the aldehydes and their hydrogen sulfite adducts is set up. A comparatively slow addition of hydrogen sulfite to the double bond leading to 1,3-disulfonic acid derivatives occurs; coniferaldehyde reacts slower than its methyl ether. In Na2SO3-solution both aldehydes are rapidly converted to 1,3-disulfonic acid derivatives.