Fighting for the Seats: Gender Quota and State Feminism in South Korea and Taiwan Chang-Ling Huang Department of Political Science National Taiwan University Gender Quota • Major Institutional Design to Increase Women’s Representation, Electoral as well as Non-Electoral • Electoral Representation: Widely Adopted, over 90 Countries (Constitution, Election Laws, Party Rules) • Non-Electoral Representation: Less Discussed, but no Less Important (Norway) State Feminism • When Feminists Enter the State, Femocrats • International Trend/Post-Cold War Politics • The 4th World Conference on Women ( Beijing 1995) • Gender Mainstreaming/Policy Tools • Target 30% Argument • gender quota literatures focus on electoral representation, but non-electoral representation is also, if not more, important. • In comparison to South Korea, Taiwan performs better in electoral representation, but worse in non-electoral representation. • The reason: different institutional environment for the development of State Feminism Gender Quota and Electoral Representation • Global Trend • Electoral system matters: PR most compatible, Single-member district, least compatible • South Korea and Taiwan: mixed system, single-member district plus party list Global Trend: Women in National Parliaments 60 50 40 % 30 20 10 0 12345678910 Rank 2002 2007 Rank Country Women % Country Women % 1 Sweden 45.3 Rwanda 48.8 2 Denmark 38 Sweden 47.3 3 Finland 37.5 Finland 42 4 Norway 36.4 Costa Rica 38.6 5 Costa Rica 35.1 Norway 37.9 6 Iceland 34.9 Denmark 36.9 7 Netherland 34 Netherland 36.7 8 Argentina 30.7 Cuba/Spain 36 9 Mozambique 30 Argentina 35 10 South Africa 29.8 Mozambique 34.8 35 30 Fem 25 al e M 20 % P s 15 i n S 10 o u t h 5 K o r 0 e a an 1948 d T 1954 a i w 1960 an 1967 1971 1973 1978 1981 Ye Ko a r r 1985 ea Ta iw 1988 an 1992 1996 2000 2004 9% 8% 7% F e 6% ma 5% le Me 4% mb 3% e rs 2% in L 1% o c a 0% l A s s e 1950 mb 1 953 lie 1956 s 1959 1962 1965 1968 1971 1974 1977 Tai 1980 w a n 1983 S. Ko 1986 re a 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 Female County Magistrates 16% 14% 12% 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 01 03 05 07 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 Year Taiwan S.Korea Femal City Council Members : Seoul and Taipei 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% 9 3 9 5 1 5 1 6 71 75 77 81 83 8 87 89 9 93 97 99 0 03 05 97 97 99 19 19 1 19 19 1 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 1 19 19 20 20 20 Year Taipei Seoul Taiwan has more female representatives because……… • Pre-existed institutions. Reserved Seats for Women since the 1947 constitution. The quota remains 10% for years and became ceilings. • Major momentum appeared in the mid- 1990s. Demanded by feminist organizations. Target 25% • Party adoption. Quota is gender neutral. Less resistance from male politicians. Quota Type South Korea Taiwan National 50% 50% Legislature (9.35% of total seats) (15% of total seats) (Party List) National 30% Nomination 0 Legislature encouraged. No Penalty. Financial (District) Incenctives) Local Assembly 50% SNTV: (Party List) For every four elected, one must be a woman. Local Assembly 30% Nomination (15%-25%) encouraged. No Penalty. Financial (District) Incenctives) Female Parliamentary Members (Political Family) 70 62.5 60 51.5 50 41.1 40 % 30 30 20 10.3 10 3.4 0 Total District Party List Korea Taiwan Democracy and Non-electoral Representation • The Changing State-Society Relations in South Korea and Taiwan • Mutually embedded and mutually constituting • Proliferation of Government Committees and Public Commissions • The institutional barriers of elections Women in Government Committees 40 35 30 25 % 20 15 10 5 0 Total Central Government Local Government South Korea Taiwan State Feminism in South Korea and Taiwan • South Korea: 2001 Ministry of Gender Equality • Taiwan: 1997 Cabinet level Commission on the Promotion of Women’s Rights • Femocrats Led vs. Commissions Led Gender Quota in Education Taiwan Commission on Gender Equality Education, Ministry of Eduation Gender Equality Education Law 30% Gender Quota in Teachers Review Committee (gender neutral, all levels) Gender Quota in Education South Korea A Femocrat in Ministry of Education 200 out of 1000 new faculty positions Controversies and criticism Tentative Conclusion • Gender and democracy • The goal of quota: implementing the quota to make quota eventually meaningless • more attention should be paid to non- electoral representation, whether from the research agenda of democratization or state feminism.