PhD THESIS The effects of habitat heterogeneity and human influences on the diversity, abundance, and distribution of large mammals: the case of Deng Deng National Park, Cameroon A thesis approved by the Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Process Engineering at the Brandenburg University of Technology in Cottbus-Senftenberg in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the academic degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Environmental Sciences. By Mercy Nambu Diangha Master of Science Born in Bamenda, North-West Region, Cameroon Supervisor: Prof. Dr. rer. nat. habil. Gerhard Wiegleb Supervisor: PD. Dr. rer. nat. habil. Udo Bröring Day of oral examination: 14. 07. 2015 DOKTORARBEIT Die Auswirkungen von Habitatheterogenität und menschlicher Einflüsse auf die Vielfalt, Dichte und Verteilung von großen Säugetieren: der Fall Deng Deng National Park, Kamerun Von der Fakultät für Umweltwissenschaften und Verfahrenstechnik der Brandenburgischen Technischen Universität Cottbus-Senftenberg genehmigte Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Doktors der Philosophie (Ph.D.) in Umweltwissenschaften vorgelegt von Mercy Nambu Diangha (Master of Science) Bamenda, North-West Region, Cameroon Gutachter: Prof. Dr. rer. nat. habil. Gerhard Wiegleb Gutachter: PD. Dr. rer. nat. habil. Udo Bröring Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 14. 07. 2015 Declaration I, Mercy Nambu Diangha hereby declare that this PhD thesis is the result of my personal academic research effort carried out within the structured PhD programme Environment and Resource Management, offered at Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus-Senftenberg, Germany. Neither this thesis nor any part of its content has ever been submitted to any examination committee for the award of any academic qualification. Secondary sources used in this thesis are acknowledged and have been cited accordingly. Mercy Nambu Diangha ____________________ Cottbus, _______________________ 2015 Matricule number: 2933117 i Dedication All Glory belongs to you oh Lord! This thesis is dedicated to my dearly loved children Frank Kafain Diangha and Matthew Diangha Young who remain my firm source of inspiration, and to my father Thomas Tingem Diangha and siblings Irene and Gabriel who went home to be with the Lord. ii Acknowledgement This thesis would not have been achieved without the support and help of many institutions and individuals meet down my academic path. First of all, I would like to appreciate the Brandenburg University of Technology, Cottbus – Senftenberg, for giving me the opportunity to complete this PhD programme, and the Chair of General Ecology for providing a good working environment throughout my study period. I acknowledge with sincere appreciation my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Gerhard Wiegleb, whose academic mentoring, constructive criticisms and immense support throughout my study period was indispensable for achieving this work. Many thanks to my second supervisor PD. Dr. Udo Bröring for his supervisory role and thought provoking suggestions, constructive criticisms, and comments that helped improve the quality of this work. Special thanks to the timely partial scholarships offered within the framework of women‟s advancement in education at Brandendeburg University of Technology Cottbus - Senftenberg, which lifted my enthusiasm to remain focused on achieving my academic goals during tough moments. Thanks to Ms. Mareike kunze for all the advice and directions regarding the Brandendeburg University of Technology scholarship scheme. I owe gratitude to the Rufford Foundation for financial support through the Rufford Small Grant scheme that exclusively covered the cost of my field work in Cameroon. I am grateful to Prof Dr. Wiegleb, Prof. Dr. Wanner, Dr. Njabo Kevin and Mr. Nkembi Louis for supporting my grant application without which the field research part of this thesis would not have been achieved. I wish to thank the principal advisor of the World Resource Institute, Yaoundé, Mr. Duclaire Mbouna for the set of satellite imagery that was used exhaustively in this study. I am extremely grateful to the Geospatial Technical Group, Yaoundé, especially the director Mr. Nsoyuni Lawrence for offering office space and Gographic Information System software, and most especially for recommending some of his technical staff to assist during field work in Cameroon. I earnestly do appreciate the administrative and technical staff of the Geospatial Technical Group for their support and company during my research work in Cameroon. Special thanks to Mr. Pierre Ngangoumoun, Mr. Chin Genesis and Mr. Nyange Augustine for sharing their advanced GIS and remote sensing expertise with me at a time when this technical know-how was most needed. I equally appreciate the following institutions: IUCN/MIKE Program Cameroon especially Mr. Sébastien Luhunu and Ms. Bechem Martha for assisting with field equipment; Wildlife iii Conservation Society Cameroon programme especially Dr. Roger Fotso, Mr. Jean Bosco Pouomegne and Mr. Ambahe Ruffin for administrative and logistic support, and also the Ministry of Forest and Wildlife (MINFOF) particularly the Conservator of Deng Deng National Park, Mr. Charles-Innocent Abessolo for allowing me to conduct research in the park and for assigning an ecoguard; Mr. Ahmajoda to participate in my field surveys. I appreciate the chief of MINFOF forestry post Deng Deng, for granting my research team accommodation at the MINFOF forestry post during the time my team spent in Deng Deng village. I wish to extend my gratitude to the local heads (Chiefs) of Deng Deng and Tête d'éléphant villages for accepting my research team in their communities and for assigning villagers to assist in the field during my data collection phase. Special thanks goes to my field assistants Messrs. Kenneth Mbinkar, Harry Marimo, Juluis Tangem, Adrain Njobam and Godwin Kigham of GTG, Mr. Sulivain, in Goyoum village, Mr. Alain and four others in Deng Deng village, Messrs. Suleman, Augustin, and Melvin in Tête d'éléphant village; and Messrs. Felix Okon, Derick Diangha, for their devoted assistance, team spirit and humor during my very tiresome but very rewarding field work. Special thanks to my colleague Dr. Befikadu Alemanyu, for thought provoking discussions and suggestions on relevant academic matters, as we each struggled to finish our respective theses. I am equally grateful to Dr Egute Terence, Mr. Wanki Emmanuel and Mr. Adonadaga Melvin for helpful academic discussions, suggestions, encouragement and support during my study. Deepest thanks to my very close family; sons (Frank and Matthew), nieces (Katty and Mabel), siblings (Veronica, Sylvia, Bridget, Derick), big brother Emmanuel Wultof and my lovely mum Mrs. Rachael Tingem for material and moral support throughout the trying but delightful moments of my study. Your patience, understanding, encouragement, and constant prayer during those stressful moments I experienced in this academic journey will forever be appreciated. I am and will always be proud of being part of such a God fearing Family. Special thanks also goes to Mr. Tum Young and the many friends and institutions that assisted my son Matthew (with whom I started this journey) and I, during some of the hard times we faced while studying in Germany. Your best wishes, prayers, as well as material, and financial support kept us going. Thank you very much! Above all, thanks to God Almighty for wisdom and strength to carry on when I was weak and almost giving up. For all the infinite grace throughout my academic life both at home and abroad, I say thank you Lord! Thus far the lord has blessed me! iv Abstract Large mammals constitute an integral part of biological resources, and hence fundamental elements in many ecosystems. In view of the roles played by habitats and humans in structuring large mammal populations, research was conducted in the Deng Deng National Park, with the aim to identify and characterize the spatial and temporal patterns of habitats, determine the relationship between habitat heterogeneity and mammal abundance and also to investigate the types and extent of human pressure on various large mammal species in the park. Distance sampling technique and kilometric index analyses approaches were applied to determine species presence, frequency and abundance, with dung, nests, and tracks used as proxy for species presence. Using a spatio-temporal analysis approach in Geographic Information System, species distribution was analyzed. Small and medium sized duikers, red river hog and gorilla were most frequently encountered. Important is the record of elephant for the first time in the park, emphasizing the importance of the park for large mammal conservation. Diverse land cover types that constitute habitats for flora and fauna were distinguished and characterized as dense forest, mature secondary forest, young secondary forest, tree and grassland savanna, settlement and degraded areas, and water bodies. Area, mean patch size, shape, density and richness metrics of these land cover types varied, emphasizing the heterogeneity of the park landscape. No significant differences (0.2 ≤ p ≥ 0.8) were observed in species abundance due to diverse habitat characteristics in the park. Species exhibited generalist habits with preference mostly for the dense and mature secondary forest habitat types. Temporal pattern over a 23 years‟ time lag projected a 6.19 % increase in dense forest cover, suggesting future shelter opportunities for large mammals in the park. The park is experiencing