DESCRIBING AND MEASURING THE ATHLETIC IDENTITY CONSTRUCT: SCALE DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Thomas J Cieslak II, M.A. The Ohio State University 2004 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Janet Fink, Co-Adviser ____________________________ Professor Donna Pastore, Co-Adviser Janet Fink, Ph.D., Co-Advisor Professor Packianathan Chelladurai ____________________________ Donna Pastore, Ph.D., Co-Advisor College of Education Copyrighted by Thomas Joseph Cieslak II 2004 ABSTRACT Athletic identity has received much attention in the literature (Brewer, Van Raalte, & Linder, 1993; Horton & Mack, 2000; Krylowicz, 2000; Lantz & Schroeder, 1999; Ryska, 2003; Wiechman & Williams, 1997); however, several authors (e.g., Brewer & Cornelius, 2002; Hale, James, & Stambulova, 1999; Martin, Eklund, & Mushett, 1994) have mentioned the need to expand the construct. The purpose of this study was to develop a more comprehensive athletic identity framework. Specifically, this study expanded previous research by adding a factor (i.e., positive affectivity (PA)) to the framework and adding several items to previously established factors (i.e., social identity (SC), exclusivity (EX), negative affectivity (NA), and self-identity (SI)). In addition, the current study examines the relationship between athletic identity and other identities within the self (i.e., family, friendship, athletic, religious, academic, and romantic). A total of 222 participants from a university Intramural Sports program were surveyed. A panel of experts, field test, pilot test, and final sample were used to establish validity and reliability of the AIMS-Plus. Analysis of the data was conducted with SPSS and AMOS programs. The results of the analyses produced the following: 1) the descriptive statistics indicate that the PA component contributed more to the total athletic identity score followed by NA, SC, SI, and EX components; 2) the internal consistencies (Cronbach's alphas) were acceptable for the five factors; 3) confirmatory factor analysis indicated the absolute fit indices and incremental fit indices showed a poor fit of the data; and 4) ANOVA indicated that high and medium athletic identifiers did not significantly differ in their rating and ranking of the relative importance of six identities with the exception of the athletic identity and romantic identity. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The completion of this dissertation nor my success in life would have not been possible without the support, cooperation, and enthusiasm of my family, friends, and colleagues. There are far too many to name, however, some gave much more than I ever expected…such as their wisdom, friendship, and love. I would like to thank the following individuals: Thomas J Cieslak, my father and my role model for the past 35-years, who I admire for his dedication to his family and profession and to life. My father is a remarkable man who taught me to enjoy the simple things in life and to love with a full heart. Kimberly Marie Sievert, my sister and my friend for the past 33-years, for being the most genuine, loving, caring, and optimistic person in my life. My sister is an incredible woman who has shown me to be honest and true by looking for the best in others, while trying to be the best person I can be. Terry Beveridge and Mitch Landrum, my grade-school friends whom befriended me 25- years ago and for continuing to be an influential part of my life through their endless support and teaching me to trust myself in all that I do. “Friends for life!” Jeffery Martin, Ph.D., my undergraduate advisor, his support and confidence in my ability to become a university teacher and researcher…were the initial steps in this educational marathon. Janet Fink, Ph.D., Donna Pastore, Ph.D., and P. Chelladurai, Ph.D., for their unmatched enthusiasm and knowledge and for helping me bring that to the dissertation. There are many, many more whom were helpful in the completion of this dissertation, including the panel of experts, some 300-students, and those who consider me a friend. iii VITA February 3, 1969 Born December 17, 1998 B.S. Physical Education, Wayne State University September 1998 – May 2001 Graduate Teaching and Research Assistant, Wayne State University May 3, 2001 M.A. Sport Administration, Wayne State University September 2001 – June 2004 Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University PUBLICATIONS Research Publications 1. Engels, H.J., Kolokouri, I., Cieslak, T.J., & Wirth, J.C. (2001). Effect of chronic ginseng on supramaximal exercise performance and acute recovery. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 15(3), 290-295. FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Sport and Exercise Management iv TABLE OF CONTENTS SECTION PAGE ABSTRACT ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii CURRICULUM VITAE iv LIST OF TABLES viii LIST OF FIGURES ix CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 1 Background 1 Conceptual Framework for the Study 5 Justification for the Study 22 Statement of the Problem 25 Purpose of the Study 28 Research Questions of the Study 29 Significance of the Study 30 Definition of Terminology 31 Limitations and Delimitations of the Study 34 Overview of the Remaining Chapters 35 CHAPTER 2 - REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 36 Defining Athletic Identity 36 Measuring Athletic Identity – A Unidimensional Scale 39 Construction and Validation of the AIMS 40 Athletic Identity and Injury 44 Athletic Identity and Performance 47 Athletic Identity and Identity Foreclosure 51 Athletic Identity and Career Expectations 53 Athletic Identity and Other Identities 56 Measuring Athletic Identity – A Multidimensional Scale 63 Social Identity 65 Exclusivity 67 Negative Affectivity 70 Self Identity 71 Positive Affectivity 75 Conceptual Models of Athletic Identity 76 Measuring Identity – Social Psychology Literature 81 v SECTION PAGE Measuring Identity – Sport Identity Index 86 Conceptual Framework 94 CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY 96 Research Design 96 Selection of the Sample 98 Instrumentation 105 Section I – Measuring Athletic Identity 105 Section II – Identity Hierarchy and Salience 114 Section III – Demographic Information 114 Operational Definitions 116 Scale Development 117 Panel of Experts 121 Field Test 123 Pilot Test 123 Data Collection Procedures 126 Data Analysis Procedures 127 Analysis for Research Question 1 130 Analysis for Research Question 2 134 CHAPTER 4 – RESULTS 136 Scale Items 137 Panel of Experts 137 Field Test 143 Pilot Test 144 Final Survey 147 Data and Results 150 Data for Research Question 1 150 Results for Research Question 1 153 Data for Research Question 2 155 Results for Research Question 2 157 CHAPTER 5 – DISCUSSION 161 Summary of Findings 163 Discussion and Implications 165 External Components of Athletic Identity 166 Internal Components of Athletic Identity 172 Role-Identity-Ranking 175 Conclusions 179 Limitations 181 Recommendations for Future Research 181 vi SECTION PAGE APPENDICES A The original Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS). 185 B All empirical AIMS studies – unidimensional measure. 187 C The original Sport Identity Index (SII). 190 D List of Scales and subscale associated with AIMS research. 195 E All empirical AIMS studies – multidimensional measure. 197 F First version of the AIMS-Plus. 199 G The Panel of Experts. 204 H Panel of Experts’ Cover Letter, Categorization Form, and Comment Form. 206 I Field Test Cover Letter. 212 J Pilot Test and Final Survey Cover Letter. 214 K Second version of the AIMS-Plus. 216 L Third version of the AIMS-Plus. 221 LIST OF REFERENCES 226 vii LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 2.1 positive and negative self-perception items of the AIMS. 40 2.2 7-item, 3-dimension AIMS. 81 3.1 The sports leagues offered by OSU Intramural Sports. 102 3.2 Characteristics that outline competitive and recreational sports. 104 3.3 Original 10-items of the AIMS. 106 3.4 9-items adopted and modified from the SII. 107 3.5 6-items developed by the research for the AIMS-Plus. 108 3.6 25-items of the AIMS-Plus. 109 3.7 First order factors and items of the AIMS-Plus. 114 4.1 Panel of Experts evaluations of the AIMS-Plus. 139 4.2 AIMS-Plus following the Panel of Experts review. 141 4.3 Demographic information for the pilot test. 145 4.4 Reliability assessment for the pilot test. 147 4.5 Demographic information for the pilot test. 149 4.6 Total scores and standard deviations for the AIMS-Plus scales. 151 4.7 Final reliability assessments for the AIMS-Plus. 151 4.8 Correlation matrix for the AIMS-Plus. 152 4.9 Final model fit indices for the AIMS-Plus. 152 4.10 Frequency distributions for the variables of research question 2. 159 4.11 ANOVA for research question 2. 160 viii LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1.1 Brewer and Cornelius’ (2002) 7-item, three factor model. 6 1.2 The self and its identities. 14 1.3 An athlete’s identities and their hierarchical order of importance. 15 1.4 Conceptual framework of the new athletic identity model. 21 2.1 10-item, unidimensional model of the athletic identity. 77 2.2 8-item, three factor model of the athletic identity. 78 2.3 9-item, four factor model of the athletic identity. 79 2.4 7-item, three factor model of the athletic identity. 80 3.1 The athletic identity model consisting of the 25-items. 120 4.1 Diagram of the factor analysis. 154 5.1 Athletic identity model for the AIMS-Plus. 1 67 5.2 Comparison of a holistic athlete versus identity foreclosure athlete. 170 5.3 An intramural athlete’s hierarchy of identities. 176 ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND As society continues to emphasize sport, many Americans develop strong, often exclusive, athletic identities. Once an athlete begins a career in sport, he or she experiences a process of sport socialization. After participating on a beginner level (e.g., youth sport and interscholastic athletics), most athletes choose to specialize in a sport in which they are most skilled in.