DESERTIFICATION DYNAMICS AND ITS CONTROL MECHANISMS IN SEMIARID AREAS OF PAKISTAN: A CASE STUDY OF DISTRICT KARAK PAKISTAN IFFAT TABASSUM INSTITUTE OF GEOGRAPHY, URBAN & REGIONAL PLANNING, UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR, PAKISTAN 2011 DEDICATED TO: My Parents who had the dream for my highest possible level of education, My Husband and Children who rendered great deal of time And to the People of Karak APPROVAL SHEET This research thesis, titled “Desertification Dynamics and its Control Mechanisms in Semiarid Areas of Pakistan: A Case Study of District Karak”, submitted by Ms Iffat Tabassum, under the supervision of Dr Mohammad Aslam Khan, HEC Professor, Institute of Geography, Urban and Regional Planning, University of Peshawar, KPK, (Pakistan) for the award of degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography is hereby approved. External Examiner Supervisor (Prof. Dr. M. Aslam Khan) Internal Examiner ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I express my sincere and deep gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Mohammad Aslam Khan, HEC Professor, Institute of Geography, Urban and Regional Planning, University of Peshawar, for his valuable advices, encouragement and guidance. Specially, I owe a big thanks to Dr. Fazlur Rahman, Associate Professor, Institute of Geography, Urban and Regional Planning, for his continued help, critical review of research and valuable inputs. I would also like to acknowledge the positive attitude and support of Prof. Dr. Amir Khan, Director, and other faculty members, institute of Geography, Urban and Regional Planning, University of Peshawar enabling me in achieving my goal. I have no words to place on record my deep sense of gratitude to my teacher and colleague Prof. Dr. Mahamood-ul-Hasan, Institute of Geography, Urban and Regional Planning, University of Peshawar for his ever encouraging and motivating attitude, support and priceless affection. I extend my sincere appreciations to Dr. Ihsanullah Khattak, Institute of Geography, Urban and Regional Planning, for extending his valuable inputs, worthless help in preparing different maps used in this thesis and computer assistance. I sincerely acknowledge Mr Janas Khan, for helping me in the data input and processing in SPPS. Furthermore, the help and cooperation extended by supportive staff, of the same institute, is worth mentioning. I am also indebted to Prof. Dr Mohammad Jamal Khan, Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, KPK Agricultural University, Peshawar, who was very supportive and encouraging during the course of this study. My heartfelt thanks are to my cousin Kamran Ullah and my brother in law Khursheed Sultan, who accompanied me during the tiring trips of my field survey and arranged several meetings for data collection related to this study. Without their help, I would have not been able to conduct my fieldwork efficiently. I acknowledge University of Peshawar for providing financial help to complete this research project. iv Last but not the least I am specifically thankful to the following that helped me in different ways during the course of my study. i. Rehman Gul, Ihsan ur Rahnmn, Naveed Alam and Fazlul Haq, M.Phil students of Institute of Geography, Urban and Regional Planning University of Peshawar. ii. Mohammad Yasin, Director, Soil and Water Conservation, Karak. iii. Mr. Hidayat ullah. Director, Soil Survey Peshawar. iv. Resham Ali, Revenue Officer Karak. And v. People of Karak for extending great help by providing valuable information and giving their precious time. Greatest thanks, however goes to my loving parents and caring family for their support and encouragement in my education pursuits. It will be injustice if I don‘t mention the support of my husband Dr. Shaukat Hayat and my children Asfandiyar, Mahnoor and Aliyar for their patience and priceless love. Without their support I won‘t have accomplished this research work efficiently. I pray Allah, the Almighty to reward them all for their good deeds. Iffat Tabassum v ABSTRACT Desertification has emerged as a major environmental problem during last few decades. Due to its serious implications on food security it has attracted global recognition. Significant attention is being given to its mitigation both at government and non-governmental levels. Some of the efforts carried out by state sponsored agencies and NGOs have turned into success stories. However, it has been noticed that if the problem persists for a long time due to lack of attention then land restoration becomes ecologically and financially expensive. Therefore its earlier diagnosis and treatment can not only reduce the cost but is also beneficial for human welfare. Pakistan has substantial land susceptible to desertification due to geographical factors such as topography and aridity and social issues like rapid population growth and socio-economic changes. The pressure on land often leads to its un-sustainable land use leading to desertification. Millions of poor farm households and their livelihoods in arid and semiarid areas of the country are prone to risks and uncertainties associated with desertification and land degradation. Inhabitants of the areas affected by desertification try to adapt to changing environment and cope with emerging problems within their own limited knowledge and capacity. Some of the adaptation strategies like social values and norms are built in the traditions of the society. In addition, farmers try to learn from their experiences. Their efforts need to be supported as much as possible. Technology transfer and extension on conservation practices and selection of suitable and better adopted plant varieties and livestock breeds could be of substantial help in that direction. Further, financial assistance through farm credits could also help poor farmers to invest in their lands for improving its productivity. The present study of Karak district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has been undertaken to portray a case study in Pakistan in an area prone to and affected by desertification. It would provide an insight not only into the causes of desertification in a semiarid area but also into workable alternatives adapted locally for the sustainable management of land resources. It would also help in policy formulation and provide guidelines for decision-making to combat desertification. vi Data regarding physical parameters in this study were obtained using modern tools like remote sensing and GIS for mapping the area affected or at risk from desertification. The data on social parameters were collected through household surveys and focused group discussions that were analyzed following its processing with SPSS. Results obtained from this study reveal declining land productivity (both crops and rangeland), crop failure, and increased cost of agriculture, pointing a finger towards increasing desertification and land degradation. Both natural and anthropogenic factors are responsible for increase in desertification. Among natural factors enhanced aridity (water scarcity) as well as erosion of soil by wind and water are prominent. In terms of anthropogenic factors, over exploitation of resources, whether through cutting of vegetation, cultivation of farmland or livestock grazing is the main culprit. In order to reduce their dependence on land many people have migrated to earn income from nonfarm sources. However, while providing extra income, migration has also resulted in dearth of farm labor, often leading to abandonment of cultivated land opening them to erosion and desertification. Nevertheless remittances from migrants have also helped in certain cases to enhance investment in land for increasing productivity through increase of farm inputs. Finally, this study noted that the practice of traditional values for the control of desertification, which had declined with time are now being revived to control the overexploitation of resources, a good sign for future desertification control in the area. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................ iv ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................. viii LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................................. xii LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................................... xiii LIST OF MAPS ................................................................................................................................ xiv LIST OF PLATES ............................................................................................................................ xiv CHAPTER – 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 BACKGROUND ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 The Process of Desertification ......................................................................................... 1 1.1.2 The Challenge of Desertification ....................................................................................