Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture Volume 24 (2005) No. 3 IN THIS ISSUE Media and Emotions Werner Wirth and Holger Schramm Institute for Mass Communication and Media Research University of Zurich AQUARTERLY REVIEW OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH ISSN: 0144-4646 Communication Research Trends Table of Contents Volume 24 (2005) Number 3 http://cscc.scu.edu Media and Emotions 1. Introduction . 3 Published four times a year by the Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture (CSCC), sponsored by the 2. The nature of emotions: Theoretical approaches California Province of the Society of Jesus. and methodological applications . 4 Copyright 2005. ISSN 0144-4646 A. Emotion theories . 4 B. Genesis of emotions . 5 Editor: William E. Biernatzki, S.J. C. Types of emotions . 6 Managing Editor: Paul A. Soukup, S.J. D. Methods of emotion research . 6 Editorial assistant: Yocupitzia Oseguera 3. Emotions as effects of media exposure . 8 A. Dimensions of media emotions . 8 Subscription: B. Empathy . 8 Annual subscription (Vol. 24) US$45 C. Mood regulation . 9 D. Arousal/Excitation . 10 Payment by check, MasterCard, Visa or US$ preferred. E. Suspense . 10 For payments by MasterCard or Visa, send full account F. Fear/Anxiety . 12 number, expiration date, name on account, and signature. G. Affective involvement . 13 H. Entertainment . 14 Checks and/or International Money Orders (drawn on USA banks; for non-USA banks, add $10 for handling) 4. Effects of emotions in media content . 15 should be made payable to Communication Research A. Emotions and information/news . 15 Trends and sent to the managing editor B. Emotions and texts/literature . 16 Paul A. Soukup, S.J. C. Emotions and films/other television genres . 17 Communication Department D. Emotions and music (in radio) . 18 Santa Clara University 500 El Camino Real 5. Emotions as determinants of non-emotional Santa Clara, CA 95053 USA effects of media exposure . 20 A. Emotions and memory . 20 Transfer by wire to: Bank of America, 485 El Camino B. Emotion and persuasion . 22 Real, Santa Clara, California. 95050, Account 00425- 14510, Routing #121000358. Add $10 for handling. 6. Perspectives and suggestions for further research . 25 Address all correspondence to the managing editor at the address shown above. Editor’s Afterword . 25 Tel: +1-408-554-5498 Fax: +1-408-554-4913 References . 26 email: [email protected] Book Reviews . 39 The Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture (CSCC) is an international service of the Society of Jesus established in 1977 and currently managed by the California Province of the Society of Jesus, P.O. Box 519, Los Gatos, CA 95031-0519. 2— VOLUME 24 (2005) NO. 3 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Media and Emotions Werner Wirth and Holger Schramm [email protected] [email protected] 1. Introduction If emotion is conceptualized as a psychological 1983, 1996b) or the Mood-Management Theory construct, the (media-)psychological origins of our dis- (Zillmann, 1988a, 1988b, 2000b). Zillmann, his work, cipline offer a good starting-point for this review about and his theories had a central and sustainable impact on “media and emotions” (cf. the review by Trepte, 2004). emotion-psychological communication research By 1916, in the context of his psychological stud- throughout the past 30 years (Bryant, Roskos- ies on films, Münsterberg realized the need to distin- Ewoldsen, & Cantor, 2003). In the 1970s, Zillmann and guish empathic sympathy for protagonists as well as other media psychologists began to professionalize the projection of personal feelings on the protagonists research on “media and emotions.” Thus, the research from reactions to the protagonists’ emotions. groups around Sturm and Vitouch (Sturm, Vitouch, Psychological research on radio broadcasting emerged Bauer, & Grewe-Partsch, 1982) developed psy- in 1930, with researchers such as Allport, Cantril, chophysiological measures such as the amplitude of the Gaudet, Herzog, and Lazarsfeld. Beyond audience rat- pulse volume or the heart rate as indicators of emo- ings and coverage, they extended their studies to emo- tional aspects of media reception. In this context, the tional aspects of reception, emotional gratifications, discovery of the “missing half-second” (Sturm, 1984) and the impact of radio usage (see, especially, Cantril became legendary: In media reception, people miss & Allport, 1935). Arnheim’s (1944) famous study, too, about half a second in order to process information as showed that emotional aspects (like identification with they do outside the media. The cognitive processing of radio-soap characters) are central gratifications in radio media content is impaired and emotional aspects pre- usage and contribute to the success of radio programs. dominate more and more. From about 1950 on, research on TV became From the 1970s on, the first special editions of more important than psychological research on films; journals (e.g., contributions by Huth, 1978; Kanungo, here, the research questions changed fundamentally. 1978; Sturm, 1978; Tannenbaum, 1978; Vitouch, 1978, The first experimental studies in the laboratory had in “Fernsehen und Bildung” [“TV and Education”]) as been conducted in the 1930s (Cantril & Allport, 1935; well as monographs emerged which explicitly included Herzog, 1933), but they gained particular political rel- words such as “emotion” and “entertainment” in the title evance in the work of the Yale group, led by Hovland (e.g., Bosshart, 1979; Dehm, 1984; Tannenbaum, 1971, (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953). On basis of stimulus- 1980; but also Mendelsohn, 1966). In the 1980s, one response logic, the group investigated the effects of could observe an increasing institutionalization of media fear appeals on attitudes towards war. psychology (Trepte, 2004). This tendency fostered psy- Inspired by the cognitive shift in psychology dur- chological research questions and in this way questions ing the 1960s and 1970s, communication research concerning the topic of “media and emotions.” increasingly focused on the psychological processes Research in the 1980s and 1990s continually during media reception. The emotion-psychological drew on fundamental research on the psychology of theories underlying this approach, however, differed emotion. Thus, many communication researchers with fundamentally from each other. Zillmann (1978, 1983, a background in media psychology (Mangold, 1998, 2003, 2004a), for example, developed his own Three- 2000a, 2000b; Mangold, Unz, & Winterhoff-Spurk, Factor Theory of Emotion (in a review: Bryant & 2001; Schwab, 2001; Scudder, 1999; Unz & Schwab, Miron, 2003) on the basis of Schachter’s and Singer’s 2003; Unz, Schwab, & Winterhoff-Spurk, 2002; Wirth, Two-Factor Models of Emotion (Singer, 1962; Schramm, & Böcking, 2004) refer to Scherer’s Schachter, 1964). Zillmann’s theory laid out the foun- Cognitive-Appraisal Theory (1984, 2001; even applied dation for his more specific theories, such as the to media reception: Scherer, 1998). Recent communi- Excitation-Transfer Theory (Zillmann, 1971, 1982, cation research has developed some theoretical propos- COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 24 (2005) NO. 3 — 3 als about the role of emotions in media consumption media. In section 3 we will concentrate on particular (e.g., Nabi, 1999, 2002; Schramm & Wirth, in press; emotions as effects of media usage and will focus on Wirth, Schramm, & Böcking, 2004). their respective concepts and theories of reception. In The peak of engagement with this topic, howev- section 4 we will consider these media emotions under er, has not yet been reached. And so, it makes sense media-specific or genre-specific conditions and pro- now to review the status quo and also offer some per- vide a short review of the relevant research. Section 5 spectives for future research in this field. In the next will cover emotions as determinants of non-emotional section we will describe the foundations of emotions as effects of media exposure, such as persuasion or mem- far as theory and measurement are concerned, since ory. Finally, in section 6, we will offer some perspec- this underlies all work examining emotions and the tives for further research. 2. The nature of emotions: Theoretical approaches and methodological implications A. Emotion theories es (e.g., James, 1884, 1890; Izard, 1971, 1990; Tomkins, What exactly are emotions? The answer strongly 1962). In this tradition, Schachter and Singer’s (1962) depends on the theoretical approach being applied. approach stood at the center of interest for a long time. Kleinginna and Kleinginna (1981) specify four compo- The authors assumed that unspecific, physiological nents mentioned by many emotion theories in one way arousal is the origin of emotional experience. Arousal or another. Emotions can be considered complex inter- yields its specific emotional meaning by subsequent active entities encompassing subjective and objective interpretations and cognitive appraisals. Current neuro- factors consisting of affective, cognitive, conative, and biological approaches continue studying in this tradi- physiological components. The affective component tion. The aim of these studies is to identify the regions includes the subjective experience of situations, which is of the brain that are activated or deactivated by specific connected to feelings of arousal, pleasure, or dissatisfac- emotions (cf. Merten, 2003). A second group of theories tion. The cognitive component refers to how situations attributes great importance to physiological