From State to Society: Democratisation and the Failure of Transitional Justice in Indonesia A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political and Social Change College of Asia and the Pacific of the Australian National University Sri Lestari Wahyuningroem March 2018 © Sri Lestari Wahyuningroem, 2018 Statement of originality I certify that this thesis is my original work. It contains no material which has been accepted for the award of a degree or a diploma in any university, and to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material published by another person, except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis. Signed, Sri Lestari Wahyuningroem 1 Acknowledgements A friend told me once that thesis writing is like running a marathon; the track seems very long and difficult and it slows you down, but once you see the finish line you will run really fast without even realizing it, Unfortunately, I‘ve never run a marathon in my life before, and I sometimes found it difficult to see the finish line during the seven years of my PhD study. Every day was a struggle up to the top of a hill and down into the valley, setting myself many finish lines but often failing to reach them. Although I tried to enjoy every moment as much as I could, I ended up realizing that writing a thesis is nothing like running a marathon. It is much more difficult, as it requires stamina, as well as skills, critical thinking, time and space, as well as mental health. There are many people who always stood by me and were willing to assist in many ways throughout this lengthy process. I am grateful to these people, who helped me to finally see and reach my finish line. First and foremost, I thank my supervisor, Prof. Edward Aspinall, for not giving up on me. He continuously supported me and made sure I was doing my research well both while I was in Canberra and in Jakarta. His careful reading and detailed comments on every draft of this thesis have been the signposts that directed me onto the right track of writing and helped develop my intellectual (thinking and writing) skills. I also found discussion sessions with him always enriching and motivating. I am also grateful to my supervisory panel members, Dr. Tyrell Haberkorn and Dr. Lia Kent, for energizing discussions and inputs, especially in the critical time when I did not have a clear idea of how I would shape this research project. I thank Dr. Greg Fealy as Head of Department, as well as other teaching staff and administrative staff of the Department of Political and Social Change who were very supportive and helpful 2 during my study at ANU. These include Prof Tamara Jacka, Allison Lay, Helen McMartin, and Thuy Pham (who proofread my thesis draft). I was lucky to have chances to meet prominent experts during my study who were willing to share with me their thoughts and links, and to facilitate my research journey and involve me in their projects and teachings in Australia and Europe. They were Prof. Harold Crouch, Prof. Robert Cribb, Dr. Kate McGregor, Dr. Jemma Purdey, Tiong Djin Siauw, Dr. Annie Pohlman, Dr. Vannessa Hearmann, Dr Jess Melvin, Matthias Hammer, Prof. Gerry van Klinken, Dr. Adam Hughes Henry, Prof. Saskia Wieringa, Nursyahbani Katjasungkana, Prof. John Braithwaite, Prof. Hillary Charlesworth, Dr. Ratna Saptari, Prof. Ben White, Dr. Susan Harris-Rimmer, Dr. Cecilia Jacob, Dr. Victoria Mason, Dr Takele Bulto, Amrih Widodo, Prof. Ariel Heryanto, Dr. Renee Jeffrey, Prof. Kathryn Sikkink, Prof. Leigh Payne, Dr. Marcus Mietzner, Prof. Stephen Permentier, Prof. Michael Humphrey, Prof. Richard Chauvel, Prof. Klaus Neumann, Dr. Jacqui Baker, Dr. Sue Ingram, Dr. Eben Kirksey. Dr. Budi Hernawan, Patrick Burgess, Kamala Chandrakirana, Barbara O‘Dwyer of Women‘s International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF) Australia, and the great team at Australia‘s UN Women National Committee. I thank them for their enthusiasm for me, my work, and my research. A special thanks for Gina Arbaquez and her team at the Ausaid ANU office for being very helpful in making sure my study and adaptation as an Australian Leadership Award awardee went smoothly. Also, thank you to the Australian-Netherlands Research Collaboration committee for selecting me and helping me with preparations for the research fellowship in Leiden. During my short fellowship, I had the chance to meet prominent people involved in Indonesia‘s struggle for change, including great people who were stranded, stateless, in various countries in Europe after the 1965-1966 political turmoil. I had excellent group discussions with these great people. 3 I am also lucky to have friends and colleagues with whom I could share the trials and joys of my journey. They are Sofiah, Azmil, Evan, Brandon, Peter, Matt, Kimly, and Lauren, and my Indonesian friends Danang, Ariane, Indri, Evie, Ari Aswin, Imma, Suharti, Stella, Ruri, and Lia. My family and I had pleasant times during our stay in Canberra because we had new ‗families‘ who shared much joy, warmth, support, and valuable experience together. Some Indonesians became very close to us, including Poppy and Nico Warouw and their family, Avi and Patrick her family, Inez and family, our Acehnese families Dewi and Iskandar, Dani and Risma, Riza and Mila, Fajran and Ibed, Ian and Dedek, Raihan and Paul, Bukhari and Hannah, Nanda and Oka, Ivan and Yolanda. I also would like to thank my special Papuan family who gave me and my family truly warm love and friendship: Mama Silpha and Om Benny Bettay and their children, Rika Korain, Irma Dian, Feryana Lawi, Libbie Giay, Billy Mambrassar, Ira Rumkabu, Ana Baransamo, Bapa Rex Rumakiek, Yusuf Sawaki, and other Papuans who live in Canberra and other places in Australia. I cannot imagine doing and completing my research without the support and cooperation of my fellow Indonesians at home. I firstly thank my interviewees, seventy- eight of them, and dozens of others who took part in group discussions, many of whom I have known personally for a long time. My years of involvement in the field of human rights and transitional justice gave me knowledge of the context as well as of people relevant for my research. Victims and survivors of various cases of human rights abuses deserve my greatest gratitude. Our interactions have been based on mutual trust, and I have learned so much from their strength and perseverance. Secondly, I thank friends who supported my field work and writing during my time in Indonesia, including the Asia Justice and Rights (AJAR) team, a great team which I was also part of for years, for providing office space and involving me in activities related to my research in Bali and elsewhere; Ella Lamasitudju and her dynamic team at Solidaritas Korban 4 Pelanggaran Hak Asasi Manusia (SKP HAM) for assisting in Palu; Ikatan Keluarga Orang Hilang (IKOHI) for assisting field work in Lampung; and members of Koalisi Keadilan dan Pengungkapan Kebenaran (KKPK), a network which I am also part of, for allowing me to actively participate in meetings and other activities during my field work; and dozens of experts and volunteers, both in Indonesia and other countries, I worked with in organizing the International People‘s Tribunal for the Indonesian 1965 Crimes against Humanity (IPT ‘65) which was held in the Hague, 10-13 November 2015. Also my gratitude to colleagues and staff in the Department of Political Science, University of Indonesia, especially the former Head, Dr Valina Singka Subekti, and former Dean of the Faculty of Social and Political Science, University of Indonesia, Prof. Bambang Shergy Laksmono, for their generous recommendations and support for my study. Another wonderful person who supported me by providing a scholarship recommendation was the late Mintje Rumbiak, a professor at Universitas Cenderawasih, Papua, who always believed that women should pursue their dreams. I thank her for her trust and friendhip. Equally important is my gratitude to friends who assisted me with secondary data collection, reference checking, and technical editing: Rajab, Denny, Angga, Fiat, and Azka. Thirdly, my journey has been a journey where sisterhood played big part in every choice I made. I am lucky to have some great ‗sisters‘ in life, the Tutur Perempuan community: Lia Toriana, Muntaza, Rizki Affiat, Olgha Tabita, Diah Setyawati, Kartika Wijayanti, Fildzah Izzati, Aulia Djatnika, Rintis Susanti, and Lia Wulandari; my ―Trio Kwek-Kwek‖ sisters: Indri and Sinnal; and dear ‗sisters‘ who have always been there for me and have helped me to develop to be who I am today. All of them took the long journey Down Under to visit me in Canberra: Nuri Soeseno, Galuh Wandita, Ati Nurbaiti, and Chusnul Mar‘iyah. My family also deserves all the credit for my achievements. Thank you to my sisters and brothers-in-law, Mala, Inong, Indra, and Bob, for your sincere support for 5 my family. My late mother-in-law, Indrati, helped me and my family to pursue our dream, and deep sorrow came knowing that the day of our departure to Australia was the last day we saw her. My gratitude also for my dearest brothers Herry, Irwan, Arry and Bintang for their guardianship since I was their baby sister. They taught me to be courageous and fearless. As the youngest in the family, I would not be standing tall today if it wasn‘t because of my brothers and my parents‘ love. My mom, Sampoernaningroem, died before I started my PhD journey, and my dad, Soegoro Hardjoamidjojo, passed away when I thought I was so close to finishing after my pre- submission presentation.