Southern Methodist University SMU Scholar Mission Foods Texas-Mexico Center Research Mission Foods Texas-Mexico Center 3-2019 Is Mexican Migration to the United States an Issue of Economic Inequality? Rene Zenteno University of Texas at San Antonio, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholar.smu.edu/texasmexico-research Part of the Migration Studies Commons Recommended Citation Zenteno, Rene, "Is Mexican Migration to the United States an Issue of Economic Inequality?" (2019). Mission Foods Texas-Mexico Center Research. 6. https://scholar.smu.edu/texasmexico-research/6 This document is brought to you for free and open access by the Mission Foods Texas-Mexico Center at SMU Scholar. It has been accepted for inclusion in Mission Foods Texas-Mexico Center Research by an authorized administrator of SMU Scholar. For more information, please visit http://digitalrepository.smu.edu. NOTAS SOBRE MIGRACIÓN Y DESIGUALDADES IS MEXICAN MIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES AN ISSUE OF ECONOMIC INEQUALITY? René Zenteno | The University of Texas at San Antonio EXECUTIVE SUMMARY his document presents an analytical over- inequality has an effect on the decision to mi- view of the following three questions: grate, on the rates of migration, and on the T how does inequality affect migration? characteristics of migrants. The aim is to iden- how much do we know about this link, par- tify how inequality has been conceptualized to ticularly for the case of migration from Mexi- explain migration, as well as to identify facts co to the United States? and can public policy about the Mexico-US case. The final section play a role towards decreasing incentives to includes some considerations regarding pub- move north through inequality alleviation in lic policy options. In conclusion, Mexico-US Mexico? The first section includes a brief dis- labor migration is associated with income cussion of past and recent patterns in Mexican inequalities between both countries. Inequal- migration to the United States. Since inequal- ity has also consequences for migrant selec- ity has been mainly addressed as an economic tivity in terms of educational characteristics issue in the study of migration, the second part and work skills. However, whether inequality of the paper provides a general examination within Mexico and within the sending com- of different economic theoretical approaches munities promotes emigration or not remains developed to understand the extent to which an open question. NOTES ON 2 / MIGRATION AND INEQUALITIES / NO.2 Is Mexican Migration to the United States an Issue of Economic Inequality? / 3 Introduction to inequalities and also impacts inequality. Even when the inequality-migration connection runs Inequality and migration issues are growing in both ways, issues dealing with the impact of importance as a consequence of rising economic migration on inequality have received the most disparities around the world and public concerns. emphasis. This is particularly true in the case of Mexico is famous not only for its high levels of immigrant-receiving countries (e.g. United States, migration to the United States but also for its his- Canada, Australia, Spain).5 torical and persistently high levels of inequality. If we want to discern whether today’s Mexican The large influx of Mexican immigrants in the migration to the United States is an issue of eco- United States has stimulated debate about its im- nomic inequality, we need to draw on previous plication for migration and inequality policies. theoretical and empirical work on the nature of One the one hand, millions of Mexicans have mi- this connection.6 In this article, I consider what grated to places in the United States with better current data and research tell us about how in- living standards in order to overcome the eco- equality plays out as a determinant for emigra- nomic and social disadvantages of their places tion. This literature review and existing empirical of origin. According to U.S. Census Bureau data, evidence aim at answering three questions raised over 16 million Mexicans were counted as new by this project: How does inequality affect mi- immigrant arrivals from 1965 to 2015;1 one of gration? How much do we know about this con- the largest mass migrations worldwide, and an nection, particularly in the case of Mexico-U.S. exodus without precedent in Mexico’s history. migration? And based on the available evidence, Today, about 11.6 million Mexican-born immi- can public policy play a role in reducing incen- grants live in the United States.2 This demograph- tives to migrate to the U.S. by alleviating in- ic outcome comes as no surprise when one ob- equality in Mexico? The first section begins with serves the long-standing history of uneven devel- a brief discussion of past and recent patterns in opment and deprivation in Mexico, exacerbated Mexican migration to the United States. Since by the economic reforms and severe recessions inequality has been mainly addressed as an eco- of recent years. On the other hand, inequality is nomic issue in the study of migration, the second a chronic flaw of Mexican society, as has been part of the paper provides an overview of distinc- recently documented.3 Millions of Mexicans face tive economic theoretical approaches developed inadequate educational and labor market oppor- to understand the extent to which inequality has tunities in their own country as a result of asym- an effect on the decision to migrate, on the rates metries in social, economic and political power. of migration, and on the characteristics of who At the heart of Mexico’s high disparities lies its migrates and who stays behind. My goal is not incapacity to compensate children from econom- to offer an exhaustive account of the literature, ically and educationally disadvantaged families. but rather to identify how inequality has been With rapid economic growth in many devel- conceptualized to explain migration as well as to oped and developing countries, constant finan- identify facts about the Mexico-US case. The final cial shocks in the capitalist system, and political section includes some considerations regarding instability in many poor nations, inequality has public policy options. emerged as an object of significant public atten- Mexico-U.S. labor migration is definitely tion, including a growing interest in public policy linked to income inequalities between both coun- to address it. Indeed, inequality has been described tries. However, whether inequality within Mexico as a fundamental issue for human development and sending communities promotes migration is by international organizations.4 However, more a question yet to be answered. Empirical evidence attention has been devoted to inequality within shows that Mexican emigration to the United individual countries rather than to wealth differ- States does not flow automatically in response to ences among countries. overall income inequality in Mexico. The research The link between migration and inequality is available for Mexico does not allow us to trace complex and reciprocal. Migration is a response an effect of inequality on migration that is either Seminar Migration, Inequality and Public Policies / El Colegio de México NOTES ON 2 / MIGRATION AND INEQUALITIES / NO.2 Is Mexican Migration to the United States an Issue of Economic Inequality? / 3 Table 1. Mexican Immigrants in the United States and Annual Rate of Change, 1960-2017 Mexican Immigrants Growth Rate 1960 575,900 1960-70 2.8 1970 759,700 1970-80 10.6 1980 2,199,200 1980-90 6.7 1990 4,298,000 1990-00 7.6 2000 9,177,500 2000-10 2.4 2010 11,711,100 2010-17 -0.6 2017 11,269,900 Source: Migration Policy Institute (MPI) Data Hub https://www.migrationpolicy.org/programs/data-hub/charts/mexican-born- population-over-time?width=1000&height=850&iframe=true, and author’s calculations. consistent or sufficient. The literature review and emigration from Mexico to the United States rose the data available allow us to argue that inequal- gradually after the end of the Bracero Programs in ity in Mexico is not the most important driver of 1964 and the enactment of the Immigration and migration to the United States vis-à-vis other eco- Nationality Act of 1965. The stock of Mexican nomic and social factors. Instead, the Mexico-U.S. migrants in the United States is now fifteen times migration stream is shaped by multiple economic, its size in 1970. Table 1 shows that the gross in- demographic, social, and policy factors in both flux of migrants from Mexico to the United States countries. Historical links, the maturity of migra- grew progressively from 1970 to 2010. In 1970, tion networks, the U.S. demand for immigrant labor, the 759,700 Mexicans residing in that country Mexico’s economic failure and delayed demograph- represented only 1.6 percent of the native popu- ic transition, and the U.S. immigration enforcement lation of Mexico. This population tripled between policies have exerted a strong influence on the bi- 1970 and 1980 and doubled in each of the follow- lateral migration rates. While these factors expe- ing two decades to reach 9.2 million in 2000. By rienced significant transformations during the last then, 9.5 percent of the Mexican-born population forty years, strongly influencing the Mexico-U.S. was already living in the United States. This per- flow of migrants, the level of economic inequality sistent growth continued until 2007, the last year in Mexico has remained practically constant during that registers an increase in the United States of the same period, as will be later seen. both the total number of low-skilled immigrants and the Mexican-born population.7 The Steady Rise and Sudden Fall of Mexican The upsurge of northbound flows took place Emigration to the United States in a context of growing labor and capital markets disparities between Mexico and the United States, International migration has been making up for as well as an escalating regional polarization in poor economic and social policies in Mexico.