AQA A Level sociology Topic companion Theory & Methods SAMPLE www.tutor2u.net/sociology Page 2 AQA A Level Sociology topic companion: theory & methods Contents Topic Consensus vs. conflict; structure vs. action 4 Modernity and post-modernity 14 Is sociology a science? 18 Subjectivity, objectivity and value freedom 23 Choice of topic and method and research design 26 Questionnaires 30 Interviews 36 Participant and non-participant observations 41 Experiments 46 Documents 50 Official statistics 54 Sociology and social policy 57 Methods in context 62 SAMPLE www.tutor2u.net/psychology Copyright tutor2u Limited / School Network License / Photocopying Permitted AQA A Level Sociology topic companion: theory & methods Page 3 AQA A LEVEL SOCIOLOGY TOPIC COMPANION: Theory & Methods This A Level Course Companion has been designed specifically to support teaching and learning, taking a systematic approach closely based on the AQA specification. The Theory and Methods companion takes each point from the two Theory and Methods areas of the specification and breaks it down into sections. Each section makes a clear link to the specification, provides a checklist of what needs to be known and then explains key content, using both classic and some more contemporary studies and examples. The sections are: . Theory o Consensus vs Conflict; Structure vs Action o Modernity and Post‐modernity o Is Sociology a Science? o Subjectivity, Objectivity and Value‐freedom . Research Methods o Questionnaires o Interviews o Participant and non‐participant observation o Experiments o Documents o Official statistics o Choice of topic and method . Theory and Methods o Sociology and Social Policy o Overview . Methods in Context Each section includes regular evaluation of theories, studies or perspectives. This is written in the explicit and developed way that students would need to try to emulate in the exam. Each section concludes with a list of possible exam questions along with expert examiner hints. While potential questions are endless (especially in relation to specific wording and the items) all the types of questions that could be asked are included, providing opportunity to write about all the core content. There is a skills‐based section on the Methods in Context questions. It is important to remember that in sociology you are encouraged to apply themes, knowledge and analysis across topic areas, including between different substantive topics. When attempting questions from one section, you should always be aware that you can and should use information from other sections. Two key SAMPLE features of this companion help to facilitate this synoptic approach. These are: . "making the link": where a connection between content in this module and that of another (usually from the first year) is explicitly explored. "links to core themes": where AQA's core themes of socialisation, culture and identity, social differentiation and power and stratification are applied to each area of the specification. The language is designed to be reader‐friendly, yet packed with key terminology and the sort of academic style that A Level students need to develop in order to excel in their exams. Copyright tutor2u Limited / School Network License / Photocopying Permitted www.tutor2u.net/psychology Page 4 AQA A Level Sociology topic companion: theory & methods CONSENSUS vs. CONFLICT; STRUCTURE vs. ACTION Specification: consensus, conflict, structural and social action theories. WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW Identify, outline and explain: . Consensus theories . Conflict theories . The differences between them Identify, outline and explain . Structural theories . Social action theories The differences between them Evaluate the usefulness of: . Consensus theories . Conflict theories . Structural theories . Social action theories For understanding contemporary society Consensus Theories Consensus theories are those that see people in society as having shared interests and society functioning on the basis of there being broad agreement on norms and values. The main consensus theory we consider is functionalism. Functionalism The sociological perspective, functionalism, developed from the writings of the French sociologist, Emile Durkheim (1858‐1917). Emile Durkheim argued that society was like a human body (the organic analogy). Society was made up of various institutions that acted like the organs of the body: they all needed to be functioning properly for the body to function. Problems in one area of society (such as high levels of crime, for example) could be a symptom of dysfunctions somewhere else (just as a headache is not always caused by banging your head). In order for society to run smoothly there has to be the correct balance of social cohesion and social control. By social cohesion, Durkheim meant the extent to which people in society were bound together in common purpose. By social control, he meant the extent to which people were prevented from behaving in an anti‐social manner. He believed the good society had neither too little nor too much of either of these qualities. Too little social cohesion and you have a selfish society where people do not look out for each other. Too much, and people do not seek personal advancement which stifles progress. Too little social control and you have lawlessness and chaos. Too much and you have oppression and tyranny. He argued that this balance was best maintained by consensus: i.e. agreement. Critical to functionalism is the idea of SAMPLEsocialisation. This is the process that creates a value consensus and therefore social solidarity. There are two stages of socialisation: . Primary socialisation: learning the particularistic values of family and community through family (occurs at a young age). Secondary socialisation: learning the universalistic values of wider society through education, media and other institutions. www.tutor2u.net/psychology Copyright tutor2u Limited / School Network License / Photocopying Permitted AQA A Level Sociology topic companion: theory & methods Page 5 Functionalism is essentially a conservative idea, based on the view that social change is a gradual process that happens naturally when the consensus shifts. Key functionalists you might have encountered in other modules or go on to encounter, include: . Talcott Parsons . Davis and Moore . Young and Wilmott . Robert Merton . Walt Rostow Key functionalist ideas include: . Organic change (rather than radical change) . Meritocracy (people achieve their position in society through effort and ability, rather than through inheritance) . Social institutions have positive functions Another theory that often gets considered alongside functionalism is the New Right. New Right Not everyone agrees that the New Right is a consensus theory (there is no consensus on it!). The ways in which it is a consensus theory are very similar to functionalism. Exam Hint: If you get a question about consensus theories, you can talk about the New Right, but to question the extent to which it is one would be considered a good analysis. The New Right combines neo‐liberal economics (free markets and minimal government intervention) with more traditional conservative views on social issues (such as a traditional view on family life, school discipline and law and order). The New Right, in many ways, shares the views of functionalists with the main difference being that they argue that, in the late 20th century in countries like the UK and the USA, society became dysfunctional: the necessary consensus broke down. The New Right argument is that a range of government policies, most notably those associated with the welfare state, undermined the key institutions that create the value consensus and ensure social solidarity. An example of this is the family. The New Right argues that liberal left politicians and welfare policies have undermined the traditional nuclear family, particularly by creating a large increase in lone‐parent families. They argue that this has led to inadequate socialisation, particularly for boys with no father figure. Charles Murray argues that this has led to the creation of an underclass. New Right ideas were instrumental in changing modern conservatism in the 1970s and were highly influential on both Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan. It would be possible to argue that the New Right is a political movement rather than a sociological theory; its observations on those groups in society with very different and conflicting norms and values can lead some to question whether it is a consensus SAMPLE theory. However, the New Right support a society like that envisaged by functionalists and support government policies which to try and change society in that way (such as tax breaks to encourage traditional nuclear families). Copyright tutor2u Limited / School Network License / Photocopying Permitted www.tutor2u.net/psychology Page 6 AQA A Level Sociology topic companion: theory & methods MAKE THE LINK The agents of socialisation that create the value consensus are: . Families . Education . Media . Places of worship, etc. As such the ideas of consensus theory, and the key theme of socialisation, is present in all of the A Level sociology modules. When answering questions about consensus theories, you can support your points with examples from any other topic area. Make sure you link those examples very explicitly to the question though. Long, descriptive accounts from other modules will not be highly rewarded. Evaluating Consensus Theories . The main criticism of consensus