FIRST AMENDMENT RELIGION AND FREE EXPRESSION CONTENTS Page Religion ....................................................................................................................................... 1071 An Overview ....................................................................................................................... 1071 Scholarly Commentary ................................................................................................ 1072 Court Tests Applied to Legislation Affecting Religion ............................................. 1074 Government Neutrality in Religious Disputes ......................................................... 1078 Establishment of Religion .................................................................................................. 1080 Financial Assistance to Church-Related Institutions ............................................... 1081 Governmental Encouragement of Religion in Public Schools: Released Time ...... 1101 Governmental Encouragement of Religion in Public Schools: Prayers and Bible Reading ..................................................................................................................... 1102 Governmental Encouragement of Religion in Public Schools: Curriculum Restriction ................................................................................................................ 1106 Access of Religious Groups to Public Property ......................................................... 1107 Tax Exemptions of Religious Property ...................................................................... 1109 Exemption of Religious Organizations from Generally Applicable Laws ............... 1110 Sunday Closing Laws .................................................................................................. 1111 Conscientious Objection .............................................................................................. 1112 Regulation of Religious Solicitation ........................................................................... 1113 Religion in Governmental Observances .................................................................... 1113 Religious Displays on Government Property ............................................................ 1114 Miscellaneous ............................................................................................................... 1119 Free Exercise of Religion ................................................................................................... 1120 The Belief-Conduct Distinction .................................................................................. 1123 The Mormon Cases ..................................................................................................... 1125 The Jehovah’s Witnesses Cases ................................................................................. 1126 Free Exercise Exemption From General Governmental Requirements ................. 1128 Religious Test Oaths ................................................................................................... 1138 Religious Disqualification ........................................................................................... 1138 Freedom of Expression—Speech and Press ............................................................................. 1140 Adoption and the Common Law Background .................................................................. 1140 Freedom of Expression: The Philosophical Basis ............................................................ 1146 Freedom of Expression: Is There a Difference Between Speech and Press? ................ 1147 The Doctrine of Prior Restraint ........................................................................................ 1150 Injunctions and the Press in Fair Trial Cases ......................................................... 1153 Obscenity and Prior Restraint ................................................................................... 1155 Subsequent Punishment: Clear and Present Danger and Other Tests ......................... 1156 Clear and Present Danger .......................................................................................... 1158 The Adoption of Clear and Present Danger .............................................................. 1160 Contempt of Court and Clear and Present Danger ................................................. 1162 Clear and Present Danger Revised: Dennis .............................................................. 1164 Balancing ..................................................................................................................... 1165 The “Absolutist” View of the First Amendment, With a Note on “Preferred Position” .................................................................................................................... 1170 1067 1068 AMENDMENT 1—RELIGION, FREE SPEECH, ETC. Freedom of Expression—Speech and Press—Continued Subsequent Punishment: Clear and Present Danger and Other Tests—Continued Modern Tests and Standards: Vagueness, Overbreadth, Strict Scrutiny, Intermediate Scrutiny, and Effectiveness of Speech Restrictions ....................... 1172 Is There a Present Test? ............................................................................................. 1176 Freedom of Belief ............................................................................................................... 1178 Flag Salutes and Other Compelled Speech .............................................................. 1178 Imposition of Consequences for Holding Certain Beliefs ........................................ 1181 Right of Association ............................................................................................................ 1183 Political Association .................................................................................................... 1189 Conflict Between Organization and Members .......................................................... 1194 Maintenance of National Security and the First Amendment ....................................... 1198 Punishment of Advocacy ............................................................................................. 1198 Compelled Registration of Communist Party ........................................................... 1201 Punishment for Membership in an Organization That Engages in Proscribed Advocacy ................................................................................................................... 1202 Disabilities Attaching to Membership in Proscribed Organizations ....................... 1203 Employment Restrictions and Loyalty Oaths ........................................................... 1205 Legislative Investigations and the First Amendment .............................................. 1210 Interference With Vietnam War Effort ...................................................................... 1210 Suppression of Communist Propaganda in the Mails .............................................. 1211 Exclusion of Certain Aliens as a First Amendment Problem .................................. 1212 Material Support of Terrorist Organizations ................................................................... 1213 Particular Governmental Regulations That Restrict Expression ................................... 1213 Government as Employer: Political and Other Outside Activities ......................... 1214 Government as Employer: Free Expression Generally ............................................ 1217 Government as Educator ............................................................................................ 1225 Government as Regulator of the Electoral Process: Elections and Referendums . 1231 Government as Regulator of the Electoral Process: Lobbying ................................ 1247 Government as Regulator of Labor Relations .......................................................... 1249 Government as Investigator: Reporter’s Privilege ................................................... 1249 Government and the Conduct of Trials ..................................................................... 1252 Government as Administrator of Prisons .................................................................. 1255 Government and the Power of the Purse .................................................................. 1259 The Government Speech Doctrine ............................................................................. 1265 Governmental Regulation of Communications Industries .............................................. 1267 Commercial Speech ..................................................................................................... 1267 Taxation ........................................................................................................................ 1278 Labor Relations ........................................................................................................... 1280 Antitrust Laws ............................................................................................................ 1280 Broadcast Radio and Television ................................................................................. 1281 Governmentally Compelled Right of Reply to Newspapers ..................................... 1285 Cable Television .................................................................................................................. 1286 Government