2012/2013 [NOTES ON ENGLISH LESSONS] ITTS VITO VOLTERRA “SAN DONA’ DI PIAVE” 2 NOTES ON ENGLISH LESSONS A DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE Intelligence has been defined in many different ways including, but not limited to, abstract thought, understanding, self-awareness, communication, reasoning, learning, having emotional knowledge, retaining, planning, and problem solving. Intelligence is most widely studied in humans, but has also been observed in animals and in plants. Within the discipline of psychology, various approaches to human intelligence have been adopted. The p sychometric approach (IQ test) is especially familiar to the general public, as well as being the most researched and by far the most widely used in practical settings. The definition of intelligence is controversial. Groups of scientists have stated the following: 1.from "Mainstream Science on Intelligence" (1994), an editorial statement by fifty-two researchers: A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on," "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do. In the 80s Horward Gardner, an American psychologist, described The Multiple intelligence theory in which he said that each individual is a unique blend of various kinds of intelligence, that is , we don’t have just one type of intelligence, but at least 7 types of intelligence. In natural behavior the intelligences operate together, separating them is an artificial process. HOWARD GARDNER Multiple Intelligence Theory Proponent Dr. Howard Gardner received in 1981 a MacArthur Prize Fellowship to support "Project Zero" at Harvard University. Gardner stated that he did not believe in the existence of "one form of cognition" that "cuts across all human thinking." Gardner observed that there are at least seven intelligences and each intelligence has autonomous intellectual incapacities. Subsequently, Gardner wrote about his observations of multiple intelligences in what has turned out to be a seminal book in the educational community, Frames of Mind, which was published in 1983. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, which Gardner proposed in this book, has become a catalyst, as well as the framework, for many current educational strategies that are proving successful in enhancing student success. The theory advances a mental paradigm in which each individual's mind can be thought of as a delicious pie, with seven large pre-cut slices, each with its own distinct taste. In other words, Gardner proposed at least seven relatively autonomous intellectual capacities that individuals employ to approach problems and create products: •Linguistic -> poets •Logical mathematical: scientists mathematicians •Spatial : engineers, surgeons, sailors, sculptors, painters •Musical: Mozart •Bodily – kinesthetic or procedural: to solve problems by using one’s own body like athletes, surgeons •Interpersonal: to understand people and cooperate like politicians, teachers, religions chiefs •Intrapersonal: to understand ourselves and act in life in own effective way. •Naturalist/spiritual/existential 3 NOTES ON ENGLISH LESSONS Gardner says that "although they are not necessarily dependent on each other, these intelligences seldom operate in isolation. Every normal individual possesses varying degrees of each of these intelligences, but the ways in which intelligences combine and blend are as varied as the faces and the personalities of individuals." 4 NOTES ON ENGLISH LESSONS AN INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE Artificial Intelligence, or AI for short, is a combination of computer science, physiology, and philosophy. It is a broad topic, consisting of different fields, from machine vision to expert systems. The element that the fields of AI have in common is the creation of machines that can "think". In order to classify machines as "thinking", it is necessary to define intelligence. To what degree does intelligence consist of, for example, solving complex problems, or making generalizations and relationships? And what about perception and comprehension? Research into the areas of learning, of language, and of sensory perception have aided scientists in building intelligent machines. One of the most challenging approaches facing experts is building systems that mimic the behavior of the human brain, made up of billions of neurons, and arguably the most complex matter in the universe. Perhaps the best way to gauge the intelligence of a machine is British computer scientist Alan Turing's test. He stated that a computer would deserve,' to be called intelligent if it could deceive a human into believing that it was human. Artificial Intelligence has come a long way from its early roots, driven by dedicated researchers. The beginnings of AI reach back before electronics, to philosophers and mathematicians such as Boole and others theorizing on principles that were used as the foundation of AI Logic. AI really began to intrigue researchers with the invention of the computer in 1943. The technology was finally available, or so it seemed, to simulate intelligent behavior. Over the next four decades, despite many stumbling blocks, AI has grown from a dozen researchers, to thousands of engineers and specialists; and from programs capable of playing checkers, to systems designed to diagnose disease. AI has always been on the pioneering end of computer science. Advanced-level compute languages, as well as computer interfaces and word-processors owe their existence to the research into arriS cial intelligence. The theory and insights brought about by AI research will set the trend in the future of computing. The products available today are only bits and pieces of what are soon to follow, but they are a movement towards the future of artificial intelligence. The advancements in the quest for artificial intelligence have, and will continue to affect our jobs, our education, and our lives. QUESTIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE 1) What fields of knowledge contribute to AI? 2) What is the aim of Artificial Intelligence? 3) Why is it difficult to define intelligence? 4) What areas of research have helped scientists to build intelligent machines? 5) How do experts build Artificial Intelligence systems? 6) What's Alan Turing's approach to Artificial Intelligence? 7) How did Boole contribute to the foundation of AI Logic? 8) When was technology which simulated intelligent behaviour available? 9) What sectors have developed as a consequence of the research into AI? 10) What about the present and future? 5 NOTES ON ENGLISH LESSONS A DEFINITION OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE Artificial intelligence is the simulation of intelligence in machines, the human intelligence without the creative part. AI is made up of different sciences whose aim is to simulate the human intelligence. AI is The branch of computer science concerned with making computers behave like humans. The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ALAN TURING The Enigma Alan Mathison Turing was one of the great pioneers of the computer field. He inspired the now common terms of "The Turing Machine" and "Turing's Test". As a mathematician he applied the concept of the algorithm to digital computers. His research into the relationships between machines, and nature created the field of artificial intelligence. His intelligence and foresight made him one of the first to step into the information age. Alan Turing was born in London on June 23, 1912. As soon as he began attending school, his aptitude for the sciences began to emerge. When it came to the more 'right brain' topics of English and history however, his attention waned. His instructors attempted to get Alan to study other disciplines, but he would respond to mathematics and science. He retained this trait throughout his education. He began his career in mathematics at King’s College, Cambridge University in 1931. It was here that his tendencies to recreate previous discoveries began to emerge. Turing seemed to have little interest in using the work of previous scientist; he would typically spend time recreating their work instead. Upon graduation, Turing was made a fellow of Kings College, and then moved on to Princeton University. It was during this time that he explored what was later called the "Turing Machine." Turing helped pioneer the concept of the digital computer. The Turing Machine that he envisioned is essentially the same as today's multi-purpose computer. He described a machine that would read a series of ones and zeros from a tape. These ones and zeros described the steps that needed to be done to solve a particular problem or perform a certain task. The Turing Machine would read each of the steps and perform them in sequence, resulting in the proper answer. This concept was revolutionary for the time. Most computers in the l950's were designed for a particular purpose or a limited range of purposes. What Turing envisioned was a machine that could do anything, something that we take for granted today. The method of instructing the computer was very important in Turing’s concept. 6 NOTES ON ENGLISH LESSONS He essentially described a machine which knew a few simple instructions. Making the computer perform a particular task was simply a matter of breaking the job down into-a series of these simple instructions. This is identical to the process programmers go through today. He believed that an algorithm could be developed for most any problem. The hard part was determining what the simple steps were and how to break down the larger problems. During World War I, Turing used his knowledge and ideas in the Department of Communications in Great Britain. There he used his mathematical skills to decipher the codes the Germans were using to communicate. This was an especially difficult task because the Germans had developed a type of computer called the Enigma.